Draft:Post-talaiotic period

Balearic slinger

The Post-Talayotic period,^[1][2] Final Talayotic,^[3][4] or Balearic period^[5] is the last chronological phase corresponding to protohistory of Talayotic culture, which developed in Menorca and Mallorca. Its chronology spans much of the Iron Age, from around 600-500 BCE, when it seems that some talayots begin to be abandoned, until 123 BCE, when the Roman conquest of the islands took place.^[6]

It seems that in both islands, this period is characterized by the end of the use of, at least, some talayots. This fact is documented, for example, at Son Fornés (Mallorca)^[7] and at Cornia Nou (Menorca).^[8] Another feature of this period is the growing influence of Punic culture. From the 5th century BCE, it is documented that the Balearic slingers fought as mercenaries for the Punics. Thanks to this activity, large quantities of imported materials arrived on the islands, especially wine, which was transported in amphorae, but also large amounts of ceramic containers, glass paste ornaments, metals, and people. Despite all this, this arrival of imported materials is only documented on a large scale, archaeologically, from the 3rd century BCE.:

At the social level, these imported materials, of high value and controlled by the local elites, would act as prestige goods that served to express the power of the dominant classes in a context of differentiated access to resources.^[9] In many cases, these prestige goods were incorporated into funerary offerings.

In this stage, in addition to the data provided by archaeology, Greek and Roman written sources must also be considered. Through these sources, we know that the islanders used an ointment made from mastic oil (at this time, olive oil had not yet become widespread) and pig fat, with which they anointed their bodies. These authors also explain that the islanders went naked during the summer, while in winter, they covered themselves with skins, according to some authors, or with a short tunic, according to others. The Balearic islanders had mules, which they may have exported to other regions, as they are also mentioned in the sources as one of the peculiarities of the islands.^[10]

Despite the influence of Punic culture, many of the cultural traits of this phase are connected to the previous stage. For example, the potter's wheel and rotary mills were not introduced until the 2nd century BCE, meaning that for much of the period, cereals were ground with the old Talayotic "molons" (hand mills)^[11] and ceramics were made by hand. The economic bases, just like in the previous phase, appear to be the cultivation of cereals and the raising of goats and sheep, with lesser importance placed on cows and pigs. The exploitation of marine resources (fish, crustaceans, and mollusks) remained extremely limited, although it increased slightly compared to the previous phase, possibly due to Punic influence.^[12]

Just like in the previous period, differences between the post-Talayotic period in Menorca and Mallorca are observed.

One of the first authors to study the material remains of this culture was Juan Ramis, in 1818, in his work Antigüedades célticas de la isla de Menorca, which is the first book in Spanish entirely dedicated to prehistory.

Just like in the previous period, differences can be observed between the Post-Talayotic period in Menorca and Mallorca.

One of the first authors to study the material remains of this culture was Juan Ramis, in 1818, in his work Antigüedades célticas de la isla de Menorca, which is the first book written entirely in Spanish dedicated to prehistory.

Post-talayotic period in Menorca

Table from the talayotic settlement of Torretrencada, Menorca.

In addition to the features already mentioned, this phase in Menorca is characterized by the growth of population centers and the emergence of new architectural models. In this regard, special mention should be made of the taula enclosures and the Post-Talayotic circular dwellings, such as those found at Torre d’en Galmés.^[13]

Chronology

It seems that during this cultural period there is the greatest consensus among researchers, as most point to the 6th century BCE as the beginning of the Final Talayotic period, due to the growing relationship with the Punic world. The end of this stage is clearly marked by the Roman conquest of the Balearic Islands by Quintus Caecilius Metellus in 123 BCE—a date that appears in various historical sources and has therefore not generated any significant scholarly debate.

Social aspects of the final Talayotic period in Menorca

Economy

The economic foundation during the Final Talayotic period continued to be cereal agriculture and livestock farming (in line with the model from the previous phase). Two additional elements should be highlighted: first, the exploitation of marine resources, and second, wine consumption. Archaeologically, this is the first point in Talayotic culture where a few fishing tools—such as hooks—have been documented, along with fish remains found in some Talayotic circles. Wine also became part of the Talayotic inhabitants’ diet during this time, largely influenced by the Punic world, with which they maintained close trade ties via Ibiza.

Religiosity

From the 6th century BCE onward, taula sanctuaries appear, allowing for insights into aspects of religious life during this period. Rituals conducted in these sanctuaries involved fire (large hearths have been documented inside), wine (large concentrations of amphora fragments), and liturgical banquets (numerous remains of domestic goat bones).

As for the central element of the sanctuary—the Taula—there are several theories regarding its meaning and the nature of worship. Some researchers suggest that the taula is associated with a divinity linked to the bull, and thus its shape symbolically represents the animal.^[14] Others interpret the sanctuary as a structure with clear Punic influence, with the taula serving as an altar for the worship of deities.^[15]

Within these sanctuaries, figurines of deities have been found—some imported from other Mediterranean regions. Notably, an Egyptian Imhotep figurine was discovered at Torre d’en Galmés. Additionally, incense burners representing the Punic goddess Tanit have been documented in various sanctuaries. Finally, three inscriptions found at the sanctuary of Son Catlar reference three deities: Baal, Caelestis, and the Full Moon god. All of these elements suggest that Talayotic religiosity was quite permeable and strongly influenced by nearby cultures, while still retaining distinctive local characteristics.

The world of the dead

From around 600–550 BCE, large necropolises with complex floor-plan hypogea begin to appear—such as those at Cales Coves, Cala Morell, and other sites. Despite the wide distribution of these burial places, the information we have about the funerary rituals of this period is limited. This is largely due to the repeated use of these caves throughout history—for livestock shelter, summer retreats, and other purposes—which has caused much of the archaeological material to disappear.

Necropolis of Cales Coves.

One of the few locations that helps us understand funerary practices from this era is the two hypogea excavated a few years ago in the Canal de los Huertos in Ciutadella, near the port. These sites yielded a large quantity of material remains, offering valuable insight into burial rituals from the Final Talayotic period.

Final Talayotic architecture in Menorca

Habitations

Starting around 600 BCE, the characteristic circular houses known as círculos begin to appear. These are well documented thanks to recent excavation work, especially in the settlement of Torre d'en Galmés.^[16] These homes feature a large enclosed outer courtyard, where evidence has been found of various daily activities, including food production and processing, tool making, and animal sheltering.^[17]

Enclosures

This is a type of structure unique to Menorca, found in certain settlements and appearing from the 6th century BCEonward. A recinto de taula consists of a large, horseshoe-shaped building constructed with cyclopean double walls—an exterior face made of large stone slabs and an interior face of medium-sized stones. Inside the enclosure, a number of side pillars are attached to the perimeter wall, and near the center stands the Taula: two massive stone blocks placed one atop the other, forming a T shape (some reaching over 4 meters high). The method of construction remains a mystery, though various hypotheses exist about how these stones were raised.

The religious function of the structure is generally agreed upon by researchers. However, several aspects are still debated—such as whether the building was roofed or open-air, and particularly, the role of the Taula itself: Was it merely a pillar supporting a possible roof? Was it a symbolic element? Or did it represent a tauromorphic deity, as some scholars suggest?

Walls

Wall of Son Catlar (Menorca).

This is the quintessential defensive element, still detectable in some Talayotic settlements on the island of Menorca. It is a cyclopean construction with double walls: the exterior face is built from large stones placed on a base, while the interior face consists of medium-sized stones, and the core is filled with a mixture of stones and earth. Today, the best example of this type of wall can be observed in the Son Catlar Talayotic settlement, where almost the entire perimeter is well-preserved.

The archaeological work conducted in recent years at this site by the Modular Project^[18] has allowed for the documentation that the construction of this structure dates back to around the 5th century BCE. It later underwent a series of modifications, such as the addition of square-shaped towers, modifications to parts of the perimeter or the opening of gates, following new siege defense models (polirocetics).

Post-talayotic period in Mallorca

Necropolis of son Real (Mallorca).

In Mallorca, there is also an observable growth in population centers. However, on this island, taula enclosures are not found, and the housing does not show the standardization seen in Menorca. On the other hand, in Mallorca, there is a more evident shift from collective funerary rituals to individual burials, as seen, for example, in the Son Real necropolis. Furthermore, in Mallorca, a change in ceramic production technology is detected, where mineral tempering agents are replaced by plant-based tempering agents, a phenomenon not observed in Menorca.

Menorca Talayotica World Heritage Site

Menorca Talayótica is a site inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2023. It is a collection of archaeological sites that bear witness to an exceptional prehistoric insular culture, characterized by unique cyclopean architecture. The island preserves exclusive monuments such as funerary navetas, circular houses, taula sanctuaries, and talayots, all of which remain in perfect harmony with the Menorcan landscape and its relationship with the sky.

Menorca has one of the richest archaeological landscapes in the world, shaped by generations who have preserved the talayotic legacy. It boasts the highest density of prehistoric sites per unit area on an island and serves as a symbol of its insular identity.

This area is divided into nine zones that cover associated sites and landscapes, with a chronology extending from the emergence of cyclopean constructions around 1600 BC to the Romanization in 123 BC. The exceptional value of its monuments and landscapes led to its inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2023.

References

1. WALDREN, W. H. (1986) The Balearic Pentapartite Division of Prehistory. Radiocarbon and other age determination inventories. Oxford.
2. MICÓ, R. (2005): Cronología Absoluta y Periodización de la Prehistoria de las Islas Baleares. BAR International Series, 1373. Oxford.
3. ROSSELLÓ, G. (1973): La cultura talayótica en Mallorca. Palma de Mallorca.
4. PLANTALAMOR, LL. (1991): L’arquitectura prehistòrica i protohistòrica de Menorca i el seu marc cultural. Treballs del Museu de Menorca, 12. Maó.
5. SALVÀ, B.; HERNÁNDEZ-GASCH, J. (2007): Los espacios domésticos en las Islas Baleares durante las Edades del Bronce y del Hierro. De la Sociedad Naviforme a la Talayótica, a M. C. BELARTE (coord.): L'espai domèstic i l'organització de la societat a la protohistòria de la Mediterrània occidental (1er mil·lenni aC): actes de la IV Reunió internacional d'Arqueologia de Calafell (Calafell-Tarragona, 6 al 9 de març de 2007), 299-322.
6. Domingo Hernández Jiménez. «La época postalayótica de las Islas Baleares». ArtyHum, Revista de Artes y Humanidades. p. 26. Consultado el 21 de agosto de 2020.
7. LULL, V., MICÓ, R., RIHUETE, C., & RISCH, R. (2001). La Prehistoria de las Islas Baleares y el yacimiento arqueológico de Son Fornés (Montuiri, Mallorca). Edición Fundación Son Fornés, Barcelona.
8. ANGLADA, M.; FERRER, A.; PLANTALAMOR, Ll.; RAMIS, D.; VAN STRYDONCK, M. ; DE MULDER, G. (2014): “Chronological framework for the early talayotic period in Menorca: the settlement of Cornia Nou”. Radiocarbon, Vol 56, Nr 2.
9. GUERRERO, V. M., CALVO, M., & GORNÉS, S. (2006): Mallorca y Menorca en la Edad del Hierro. La cultura talayótica y postalayótica. Historia de las Islas Baleares, 2. Palma de Mallorca.
10. BLANES, C., BONET, J., FONT, A., ROSSELLÓ, A. (1990): Les illes a les fonts clàssiques. Miquel Font Editor. Palma de Mallorca
11. PORTILLO, M.; LLERGO Y.; FERRER, A.; ANGLADA, M.; PLANTALAMOR, LL.; ALBERT, R. M. (2014): “Actividades domésticas y molienda en el asentamiento talayótico de Cornia Nou (Menorca, Islas Baleares): resultados del estudio de microfósiles vegetales”. Revista d’Arqueologia de Ponent, 24, 265-275.
12. SINTES, E.; ISBERT, F. (2009): “Investigación arqueológica y puesta en valor del Recinto Cartailhac: una unidad doméstica del siglo II ANE en el poblado talayótico de Torre d’en Galmés”. Patrimonio cultural de España, 1, 251-260.
13. FERRER, A.; JUAN, G.; LARA, C.; PONS, J. (2011): “El jaciment de Torre d'en Galmés (Alaior, Menorca). Les intervencions d'Amics del Museu de Menorca: Cercle 7” a III Jornades d'Arqueologia de les Illes Balears. Llibres del Patrimoni Històric i Cultural. Maó.
14. GORNÉS, J.S. 1997. Reflexiones en torno al simbolismo tauromorfo en la prehistoria de Menorca. Meloussa 4: 57-64.
15. DE NICOLÁS, J.C. 2015. Aproximación a los cultos púnicos en las taulas menorquinas. In Andreu, C.; Ferrando, C. & Pons, O. (eds.), L’Entreteixit del Temps. Miscel·lània d’Estudis en Homenatge a Lluís Plantalamor Massanet. Palma: Conselleria de Participació, Transparència i Cultura del Govern de les Illes Balears: 265-284.
16. CARBONELL, M. [et al.] (2012). “El Círculo 7 de Torre d’en Galmés: puesta en valor de una Casa Talayótica del siglo III a.c.”. A: Actas del Primer Congreso Internacional de Buenas Prácticas en Patrimonio Mundial: Arqueología (pàg. 687-702). Congrés. Madrid: Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
17. FERRER, A, RIUDAVETS, I. (2015): “Les fusaioles i els pesos de teler del Cercle 7 de Torre d’en Galmés: un exemple de la producció de teixits a Menorca durant la segona edat del ferro” a C. Andreu, C. Ferrando i O. Pons (ed.): L’entreteixit del temps. Miscel·lània d’estudis en homenatge a Lluís Plantalamor Massanet. Govern de les Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca
18. «Projecte Modular Archivado el 23 de diciembre de 2017 en Wayback Machine.».

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Categories:

• Protohistory
• Menorca
• Mallorca
• Iron Age