Citrine (quartz)

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Citrine
Cut citrine from Brazil
General
CategoryTectosilicate minerals, quartz variety
FormulaSilica (silicon dioxide, SiO2)
IMA symbolQz
Strunz classification4.DA.05 (Oxides)
Dana classification75.1.3.1 (Tectosilicates)
Crystal systemTrigonal
Crystal classTrapezohedral (class 3 2)
Identification
ColorNatural: pale yellow, with orange, green, or smoky hues
Heat-treated amethyst: yellow-orange, orange-red, orange-brown
Crystal habitHexagonal, massive
Heat-treated amethyst only: druzy, geodes
TwinningCommon: Dauphiné Law, Brazil Law, Japan Law
CleavageNone
FractureConchoidal
Mohs scale hardness7
LusterVitreous
StreakWhite
DiaphaneityTransparent to translucent
Specific gravity2.65
Optical propertiesUniaxial (+)
Refractive index1.544-1.553
Birefringence0.009
PleochroismNatural: weak dichroism (different shades of yellow or orange)
Heat-treated amethyst: none
Dispersion0.013
Common impuritiesaluminum, iron
References[1][2]

Citrine is a transparent, yellow variety of quartz. Its name is derived from the Latin word citrus (citron tree), by way of the French citrin or citron (lemon).[3] Citrine is one of the most popular yellow gemstones and has been used since ancient Egyptian times. Not all yellow quartz is considered citrine, and there is sometimes disagreement as to when the name citrine is appropriately used. However, quartz stained by iron inclusions or coatings is generally not considered citrine. Natural citrine is rare; most commercially available citrine is produced by heating amethyst or smoky quartz.

Color

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  • Twinned natural citrine crystals from Russia
    Twinned natural citrine crystals from Russia
  • Natural citrine crystal from Brazil
    Natural citrine crystal from Brazil
  • Cut natural citrine
    Cut natural citrine
  • Tumbled "citrine" (heat-treated amethyst)
    Tumbled "citrine" (heat-treated amethyst)
  • "Citrine" crystal (heat-treated amethyst)
    "Citrine" crystal (heat-treated amethyst)
  • "Citrine" geode (heat-treated amethyst)
    "Citrine" geode (heat-treated amethyst)

Natural citrine ranges in color from yellow to yellow-orange or yellow-green. The causes of its color are not well agreed upon.[2] Evidence suggests the color of citrine is linked to the presence of aluminum-based color centers in its crystal structure, similar to smoky quartz.[4][5] Citrine and smoky quartz occur in the same geological environments and can frequently be found together in the same crystal as smoky citrine. Alternatively, it has been suggested that the color of citrine may be due to trace amounts of iron;[2] many sources claim iron oxides as the source of citrine's color.[1][6][7] However, synthetic crystals grown in iron-rich solutions have failed to replicate the color or dichroism of natural citrine. The ultraviolet sensitivity of natural citrine further indicates that its color is not caused solely by trace elements.[2]

Most citrine on the market is heat-treated amethyst,[6] as natural citrine is rare. Some smoky quartz can also be heat-treated to resemble citrine.[2] Amethyst loses its natural violet color when heated to above 200–300 °C (392–572 °F).[8] Natural citrine tends to be pale in color, while heat-treated amethyst is typically a deeper yellow, orange, red, or even brown;[1] the latter is sometimes referred to as burnt amethyst.[9] Unlike natural citrine, the color of heat-treated amethyst is known to come exclusively from trace amounts of iron oxides, specifically hematite and goethite. This iron was present in the original amethyst and oxidized by the heating process. Heat-treated amethyst, like synthetic crystals, does not exhibit the dichroism of natural citrine.[2]

Amethyst with a certain iron content can be heated to produce madeira citrine, which has a deep orange color and exhibits red flashes. Its name comes from madeira, the Brazilian word for wood.[7] Clear quartz can also be irradiated to produce lemon quartz, which has a neon yellow to yellow-green color.[1]

Differentiation

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Quartz from Brazil with visible surface staining, sometimes incorrectly identified as citrine

Clear quartz with natural iron inclusions or limonite staining may resemble citrine. However, these crystals will either have coloration only on the surface or in certain spots (inclusions) within the crystal. Quartz that derives its color from coatings or inclusions is not considered citrine.[2]

Heat-treated amethyst geode showing color zoning

Like natural amethyst, heat-treated amethyst often exhibits color zoning, or uneven color distribution, throughout the crystal.[10] In geodes and clusters, the color is usually deepest near the tips and white or clear near the base.[8] Unlike heat-treated amethyst, natural citrine does not occur in geodes or large clusters. Natural citrine typically exhibits fairly even coloration throughout the crystal, and it will never contain opaque white quartz.[11][12]

photo of cut yellow topaz
Cut yellow topaz, which resembles citrine in color

It can be difficult to differentiate between cut citrine and yellow topaz visually, but they differ in hardness. All quartz varieties have a hardness of 7 on the Mohs scale, while topaz has a hardness of 8.[13]

Citrine can also be difficult to distinguish from yellow scapolite, although citrine is much more common as a gemstone.[1] They can be distinguished by their pleochroism: citrine is weakly dichroic, while scapolite is moderately to strongly pleochroic. Scapolite also usually has higher birefringence.[14]

Localities

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Most citrine, both natural[1] and heat-treated amethyst[13], originates from Brazil. Natural citrine can also be found in Russia and Madagascar.[13] Uruguay, Zambia, Madagascar, and the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul are the leading producers of madeira citrine.[7] Other notable sources of citrine include Bolivia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mexico, Myanmar, Namibia, Peru, South Africa, and the United States.[1]

Uses and history

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Quartz and its varieties have been used as gemstones for thousands of years. Citrine and other quartzes are believed to have been used by the ancient Egyptians to make talismans, by the ancient Greeks for carving symbols, and by Roman priests as rings. Queen Victoria was reportedly fond of the gemstone; many brooches and pendants featuring citrine survive from this era.[15] In the centuries before modern mineralogy, citrine was frequently confused with topaz. It was common in many cultures to use the name topaz for any golden yellow stone. The name citrine was first used in English in the 14th century.[16] Citrine has been referred to as the "merchant's stone" or "money stone", due to a superstition that it would bring prosperity.[17]

Today, citrine is the top-selling yellow-orange gemstone,[6] and it is commonly used in jewelry. It has become more popular over the last few decades due to aggressive marketing tactics and earth-tone fashion trends.[1] Citrine is sometimes used as a modern, more affordable alternative to the traditional November birthstone, yellow topaz.[13]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Arem, Joel E.; Clark, Donald; Smigel, Barbara (24 June 2022). "Citrine Value, Price, and Jewelry Information - International Gem Society". International Gem Society. Archived from the original on 2025-01-30. Retrieved 2025-02-02.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g "Citrine". mindat.org. Hudson Institute of Mineralogy. Retrieved 2025-01-10.
  3. ^ "Definition of CITRINE". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2025-02-02.
  4. ^ Maschmeyer, D.; Niemann, K.; Hake, H.; Lehmann, G.; Räuber, A. (1980). "Two modified smoky quartz centers in natural citrine". Physics and Chemistry of Minerals. 6 (2): 145–156. Bibcode:1980PCM.....6..145M. doi:10.1007/BF00311051 – via Springer Nature.
  5. ^ Lehmann, G. (1972). "Yellow color centers in natural and synthetic quartz". Physik der Kondensierten Materie. 13: 297–306.
  6. ^ a b c "Citrine". GIA. Retrieved February 2, 2025.
  7. ^ a b c "Citrine Gem Guide and Properties Chart". www.gemstones.com. Retrieved 2025-02-02.
  8. ^ a b "Amethyst". mindat.org. Hudson Institute of Mineralogy. Retrieved 2025-01-10.
  9. ^ "Burnt amethyst". www.mindat.org. Retrieved 2025-02-02.
  10. ^ "Color grading chart of Citrine - The Natural Gemstones Company | The Natural Gemstone Company". The Natural Gemstone Company. Retrieved 2025-10-30.
  11. ^ Dearnaley, Emma (17 November 2018). "Heat Treated & Natural Citrine". thecitrinecircle.com. The Citrine Circle. Retrieved 30 September 2025.
  12. ^ "Natural Citrine or Heated Amethyst?". stonemania.co.uk. Retrieved 30 September 2025.
  13. ^ a b c d Rosen, Lisa; Gathu, Elizabeth (17 October 2022). "November Birthstones: Citrine and Yellow Topaz". gemsociety.org. International Gem Society. Retrieved 25 July 2025.
  14. ^ Clark, Donald (24 August 2021). "Difficult Gemstone Separations". gemsociety.org. International Gem Society. Retrieved 30 September 2025.
  15. ^ "Citrine History and Lore". gia.edu. GIA. Retrieved February 5, 2025.
  16. ^ "November Birthstones: Citrine History". americangemsociety.org. American Gem Society. Retrieved February 5, 2025.
  17. ^ Webster, Richard (8 September 2012). "Citrine". The Encyclopedia of Superstitions. p. 59. ISBN 9780738725611.