Somali–Portuguese conflicts

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Somali–Portuguese conflicts

16th century map by Abraham Ortelius depicting the Portuguese Empire engaging with the city of Barawa
Date1499–1543[1]
(44 years)
Location
Horn of Africa
Result Somali victory
Belligerents

Supported by:

Supported by:

Commanders and leaders
Ethiopian Empire Seble Wongel		 Ahmad ibn Ibrahim †
Nur ibn Mujahid
Matan ibn Uthman †
Sayid Mehmed †
Rasūl ibn 'Ali
Muhammad al-Zaffir
'Umar al-Malik
Ottoman Empire Mir Ali Beg  (POW) (1585–89)

Somali–Portuguese conflicts refers to the armed engagements between Portuguese forces and Somali forces,[2][3] namely those of the Adal Sultanate and the cities of Barawa and Mogadishu in the 16th century.[4][5][6]

Portugal made a notable intervention in the Ethiopian–Adal War on the side of Christian Ethiopia and although Cristóvão da Gama, the commander of the Portuguese expeditionary corps was captured and executed for not converting to Islam, the remaining Portuguese continued the campaign, and Ethiopia was ultimately defended successfully.[7][8][9]

Background

[edit]
Prester John of the Indies: A 16th-century Portuguese vision of Ethiopia

The first known Portuguese to come into contact with the Horn of Africa was king John IIs explorer and spy Pero da Covilhã.[10] Covilhã landed at Zeila in 1487 and made his way to Ethiopia, where he was forced to marry and settle for the rest of his life.[11] It's not clear, however, whether he ever managed to transmit any knowledge back to Portugal.[11][10]

Nevertheless, direct and official contact between Portugal and the Horn was only established by Vasco da Gama during his expedition to reach India from Europe directly by sea.[12]

At the time, the Muslim Sultanate of Adal and the cities of Barawa (Brava in Portuguese) and Mogadishu (Mogadoxo in Portuguese) were among the states in east-Africa that were involved in the Indian Ocean trade network and their political, commercial and religious alignment with Mamluk Egypt and then the Ottoman Empire meant that they were hostile to the presence of the Portuguese in the region.[13]

Somalis were historically identified by Europeans as "Moors" largely due to their long-standing connections with the Arab world spanning over a millennium.[14][15][16] According to the soldier and explorer Francisco de Almeida as well as Duarte Barbosa, "Moors" dominated the Indian Ocean trade prior to the arrival of the Portuguese.[17][18]

In 1515, Francisco Álvares, a Portuguese chaplain-priest, joined a diplomatic mission to the Horn of Africa led by Duarte Galvão to establish contact with Emperor Lebna Dengel.[19] Delays meant the embassy only reached Massawa in 1520. Álvares spent six years in Ethiopia, documenting his experiences, but no permanent embassy was established during this mission.[20][21]

After the Adal Sultanate had invaded the Ethiopian Empire with the support of the Ottoman Empire, the Portuguese intervened on behalf of Ethiopian Emperor Gelawdewos against Adal.[22][23]

Early engagements

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Mogadishu incident, 1499

[edit]

As Vasco da Gama sailed past Mogadishu on his journey back to Portugal from the Malabar Coast, he unjustifiably bombarded the ships anchored in the harbor, causing damage to several. He then proceeded with his voyage, maintaining a safe distance from the coast. The city of Magadoxo (Mogadishu), reportedly under the dominion of "Moors" was described by Vasco da Gama as a grand metropolis, distinguished by its multi-storied houses and, at its heart, several majestic palaces.[24][25][26][27][28]

Battle of Barawa, 1507

[edit]
Main article: Battle of Barawa

At the request of the king of Malindi, who was an ally of the Portuguese, Tristão da Cunha and Afonso de Albuquerque attacked the rival city of Barawa in 1507, with a force of 1500 men and 16 ships.[29] Barawa had 4000 warriors and its authorities were offered the chance to submit peacefully, but they refused.[29] It was therefore assaulted and sacked.[29][30][31] The fighting was fierce and even Tristão was wounded by an arrow in his leg. He gave the city over to his soldiers for plundering. The looting lasted three days.[32]

Following the Battle of Barawa, Tristão da Cunha sailed to Mogadishu, the wealthiest city on the East African coast and a key stronghold.[33][34] The Portuguese encountered strong defenses, including numerous soldiers, horsemen, and battleships.[35][36] Fearing defeat, Cunha opted not to engage in a full battle and instead sailed to Socotra after sending a peace offer that was rejected. This is often noted as a non-battle due to the lack of direct combat, but it reflects the Ajuran Sultanate’s ability to deter Portuguese aggression.[37][38]

Zeila raid, 1513

[edit]

Shortly before the 1513 siege of Aden, the Portuguese governor of India Afonso de Albuquerque detached a two ship squadron to scout Zeila.[39] Its captains Ruy Galvão and João Gomes were unable to land due to the opposition of the inhabitants, Fighting began after they had intended to try to land and speak to the locals, with mounted horsemen and some on foot. They were unable to land so they then burnt twenty large ships in the harbor.[40][41]

Battle of Zeila, 1517

[edit]
Main article: Battle of Zeila
Portuguese naus and caravels depicted in a 16th-century watercolour

After the Portuguese governor of India Lopo Soares de Albergaria had conducted a campaign on the Red Sea in 1517, he razed the city of Zeila, whose garrison was away at the time and whose commander Mahfuz had recently been killed in combat while on campaign in Ethiopia.[42][43]

Berbera raid, 1518

[edit]

In 1518, the Portuguese led by António de Saldanha directed a six battleship naval attack towards Berbera. The inhabitants were however alert and upon receiving news of the presence of a Portuguese fleet in the region, evacuated the city with all their belongings. The city was then razed by the Portuguese.[44][45]

Zeila raid, 1520

[edit]

Another documented conflict occurred when a Portuguese fleet on their way to the holy city of Mecca, led by Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, attacked Zeila along with other cities on the Red Sea, their primary purpose being to disrupt Ottoman naval superiority in the region and to fight Islam.[46][47] According to historical accounts, the Portuguese bombarded the city, targeting its defenses and trade infrastructure.[48] However, Adalite forces, bolstered by Ottoman weaponry, resisted fiercely, and the Portuguese did not establish any long-term presence in the region.[49][50][51]

Massawa Ambush, 1541

[edit]
Main article: Battle of Massawa (1541)

In April 1541, troops of the Adal Sultanate attacked and killed all but two of a party of 100 Portuguese commanded by António Correia, who had mutinied and gone ashore at Massawa.[52][53][54][55]

Battle of Benadir, 1542

[edit]
Main article: Battle of Benadir

After the Portuguese conducted a large-scale naval expedition to Suez in 1541, the Ottoman Empire dedicated greater resources into protecting the Red Sea from Portuguese intrusion. To such effect, about 25 galleys were armed and stationed at Aden.[56]

Portuguese oarship

Upon receiving intelligence from the allied Swahili city-states that Mogadishu was seeking Ottoman military aid to prepare an attack against Portugal, João de Sepúlveda, the Portuguese captain of Fort São Caetano in Sofala, set out with 100 soldiers, six oarships, and a contingent of allied warriors and vessels from Malindi. Arriving at Mogadishu, the Portuguese allegedly "destroyed the city and did them great damage and injury."[57] However, modern historians consider this account unreliable, as no other historical records confirm Mogadishu’s capture or destruction.[58] Instead, evidence suggests that Mogadishu, and the wider Benadir region remained independent and hostile to Portuguese presence on the Somali coast, with the exception of a brief Portuguese sacking of Barawa in retaliation for its inhabitants having delivered a few Portuguese prisoners to the Ottoman Turks.[59][60] After signing new peace treaties with the rulers of both cities, Sepúlveda returned to Malindi.[59]

“Both before and after this raid, Mogadishu continued to be the only town in East Africa which always scorned the Portuguese and over which the latter never gained the slightest influence, and which indeed was permanently hostile to them.”[61]

Ethiopian–Adal War

[edit]
Main article: Ethiopian–Adal War

The Ethiopians had appealed for military aid from the Portuguese Empire against the invading Adal Sultanate, and the Portuguese governor of India Dom Estevão da Gama dispatched his brother Cristóvão da Gama to Ethiopia as the head of an expeditionary corps of 400 soldiers to the aid of Emperor Gelawdewos.[62][63][64] The Portuguese troops landed at the port city of Massawa in 1542 and thereafter marched inland into Abyssinia.[65] The Christian governor of Medri Bahri provided vital assistance, enabling the Portuguese to navigate across the Eritrean highlands.[66]

The Portuguese portrayed the campaign as a crusade by framing it as a sacred mission to defend and liberate Christian Ethiopia from the Muslim forces of the Adal Sultanate.[67][68] They emphasized their willingness to "die for the faith of Christ" and depicted Cristóvão da Gama as an "apostle of God" sent to deliver the Ethiopians from captivity, using religious rhetoric to align the conflict with the tradition of holy wars against enemies of the Christian faith, as recorded by eyewitness and soldier Miguel de Castanhoso.[69] Although the campaign had not been formally launched by the pope, crusading language was used heavily by the Portuguese.[69]

Battle of Jarte 1542

[edit]
Main article: Battle of Jarte
16th century Portuguese naval and war banner, featuring the Cross of the Order of Christ

The Adal general Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi confronted Gama and the Portuguese at the Battle of Jarte, when he attempted to assault a Portuguese fortified camp.[70] The Portuguese however, seized the initiative and marched out to attack the Adalites vigorously, routed their Turkish mercenaries and wounded Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi himself, causing the Adalite army to flee.[70] The Portuguese suffered 11 dead and 50 wounded, against over 370 of the enemy.[70]

Battle of Bacente, February 1542

[edit]
Main article: Battle of Baçente

After invading part of Ethiopia, the Sultanate of Adal had occupied the Ethiopian mountain-top fortress of Bacente or Amba Senayt. It was garrisoned with 1500 archers and buckler-men. In February 1542, the Portuguese under Cristóvão da Gama stormed the fortress, suffering 8 dead in the process, but capturing the place, while the entire Adalite garrison was slaughtered by the Portuguese or the native Ethiopians.[71] The expeditionary force spent the rest of February there, recovering from the battle.[72]

Battle of the Hill of the Jews 1542

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Main article: Battle of the Hill of the Jews
Ethiopians, depicted in the Códice Casanatense

At the Battle of the Hill of the Jews, a Portuguese detachment personally commanded by Dom Cristóvão da Gama captured a hill controlled by an Adalite contingent of warriors, where valuable horses grazed. Dom Cristóvão then left a number of men behind to secure the animals and returned to camp, before fighting in the Battle of Wofla.[73]

Battle of Wofla, August 1542

[edit]
Main article: Battle of Wofla

Following their defeat at Jarte, Gragn requested aid from the governor of Ottoman Yemen, who provided him with a retinue of Turkish, Arab, and Albanian troops that would assist him in the Battle of Wofla.[74]

On August 28, 1542 a large Adal army, which included a contingent of 2000 Arabian arquebusiers and 900 Turkish arquebusiers attacked the Portuguese at Wofla, successfully forcing them to flee their fortified camp erected upon a hill, killing 200. Dom Cristóvão was captured that night along with 14 comrades by followers of Imam Ahmad, who later personally executed him.[75]

Battle of Wayna Daga, 1543

[edit]
Main article: Battle of Wayna Daga
19th century folk painting of the Battle of Wayna Daga

The Portuguese survivors of the Battle of Wofla managed to evade capture and then link up with the army of Emperor Gelawdewos, and requested that they avenge the death of Dom Cristóvão.[76] The Portuguese would accept no other commander in replacement of Dom Cristóvão other than the Emperor himself. Large number of warriors flocked to the banner of the Emperor, and they marched out against Imam Ahmad, who had pitched camp near Lake Tana.[76] On 13 February 1543, they defeated in Wogera an Adal detachment led by the Imam's lieutenant Sayid Mehmed, who was killed in the action. Prisonores then revealed the location of al-Ghazis camp.[77]

At the Battle of Wayna Daga on 21 February 1543, the Ethiopians engaged the Adalites with the Portuguese in the vanguard. The Portuguese charged the Muslim army, followed by the Ethiopians. The Imam, seeing his men lose ground, moved up to encourage them, but upon approaching the Portuguese he was fatally shot. Tradition states that Imam Ahmad was shot in the chest by a Portuguese musketeer named João de Castilho, who had charged alone into the Muslim lines and died. The wounded Imam was then beheaded by an Ethiopian cavalry commander, Azmach Calite.[78]

Soon after this, some of the Muslims attempted to flee, while others tried to stop them, resulting in their hindrance of one another. Witnessing their disorder and confusion, the Portuguese attacked, killing many. Simultaneously, the army of Gelawdewos attacked the Muslim rear, leading to a devastating rout, the fleeing Muslims pursued by the Ethiopians and Portuguese who cut them down as they ran back to their camp. The Portuguese suffered 4 dead in this battle, while reportedly half of the Muslim army either surrendered or was killed.[79][80]

Later conflicts

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Berbera raid, 1550

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1542 Portuguese sketch of the Gates of the Red Sea, by João de Castro

In February 1550, the Portuguese governor of India Jorge Cabral dispatched Gonçalo Vaz de Távora to the Red Sea with four oarships to gather information regarding the Ottomans and the Portuguese in Ethiopia.[81] Távora reached Massawa and on his way back attacked Berbera, whose inhabitants hurriedly evacuated the city as soon as they sighted the Portuguese ships.[81] The houses were then sacked and torched.[81]

Through a number of prisoners captured at Berbera the Portuguese learnt that the Ottomans were preparing a campaign, but the objective of which was unknown.[81] A number of tradeships were then captured along the coast.[81] Távora reached Goa on May 17, 1550.[81]

1585-1589 revolt in South East Africa

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Main article: Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts (1586–1589)

In 1585, the Turkish privateer Mir Ali Beg sailed to Southeastern Africa and convinced the cities on the Swahili coast to declare their allegiance to the Ottoman Empire and revolt against Portuguese suzerainty in the region. Mogadishu and Barawa joined the revolt and supplied Mir Ali Beg with men and ships. He later erected a stronghold in Mombasa and extracted tribute from the cities nearby, but two punitive Portuguese campaigns dispatched by Tomé de Souza Coutinho in 1589, reestablished Portuguese authority along the coast.[82][83][84]

The Portuguese armada managed to recapture the lost coastal cities and punished its vassal states, but refrained from attacking Mogadishu, thus preserving the city's autonomy on the Indian Ocean. Mir Ali Beg was apprehended and taken to Lisbon.[85][86] The Ottoman Empire continued to serve as an economic partner. Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, Mogadishu consistently resisted Portuguese dominance by adopting a new coinage modelled on the Ottoman system, asserting economic independence from Portuguese influence.[87][88][89]

Aftermath

[edit]
Effigy of Dom Cristóvão da Gama at the Monument of the Discoveries

The Omani Ya'rubids challenged Portuguese supremacy on the east African coast in the 17th century, and after decades of conflict in 1698, captured Fort Jesus at the Siege of Mombasa, marking the end of Portuguese political and commercial influence north of this region.[90][91]

The siege would have a significant impact on the power dynamics in the Swahili coast. Soon after, the Omanis took over Kilwa, Pemba Island and Zanzibar. The Portuguese sphere was reduced to Mozambique from where several attempts were made to restore hegemony in East Africa, but to no avail.[92][93]

In recent times, the Portuguese navy has resumed operations in the Horn area, against unofficial groups of Somali pirates as part of NATOs Operation Allied Protector, Operation Ocean Shield and the European Unions Operation Atalanta.

See also

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References

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