Rhipicephalus

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Rhipicephalus
Rhipicephalus sanguineus
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Ixodida
Family: Ixodidae
Genus: Rhipicephalus
Koch, 1844[1]
Type species
Ixodes sanguineus
Latreille, 1806
Species

90 species, see text.

Rhipicephalus is a genus of hard ticks in the family Ixodidae, consisting of about 90 species.[2] While many species are native to tropical Africa, the genus is cosmopolitan, being found across the world.[3] Several species are vectors of significant human and animal pathogens.

Morphology

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Rhipicephalus ticks are commonly called 'brown ticks' as they are mostly brown in colour.[4] Most adult ticks in this genus do not have colour patterns on their scutum (inornate).[4] Many taxa are very similar, without clear distinguishing features. Identification is often further frustrated by intraspecies variation.[5][4] While males are reliably distinct, instar and female specimens are sometimes impossible to identify due to the lack of differential morphological features.[5][6][4]

Disease potential

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Rhipicephalus parasitism is of significant economic, medical, and veterinary importance. Many species are vectors of pathogens of humans and animals, including causing East Coast fever, anaplasmosis, babesiosis, rickettsiosis,[3] Boutonneuse fever, Lyme disease, Q fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, NSDV and Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever.[7][8] In addition to the infectious agents spread by ticks, tick bites can lead to allergic and toxic reactions.[9][10]

Some species can cause tick paralysis by injecting a neurotoxin with their bite, such as Rhipicephalus evertsi and Rhipicephalus warburtoni.[11]

Sex pheromone studies

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A number of Rhipicephalus spp. females produce phenol and p-cresol after being fed for six days. These compounds may act as sex pheromones since these compounds were shown to be the sex pheromone of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus.[12]

Etymology

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The name Rhipicephalus is derived from the Greek word rhiphis, meaning "fan-like",[citation needed] and κεφαλή, kephalē, meaning "head". The two terms are related to the hexagonal basis capituli of Rhipicephalus.

Species

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As of 2025, the genus contains 90 recognised species:[13]

Unrecognised
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Rhipicephalus sanguineus species complex

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Rhipicephalus includes a clade centred around the brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus. The taxonomy is currently in flux as phylogenies are developed. The species complex contains 16 known species-level lineages, but these often do not map singularly or wholly onto known species. Some species that are prima facie in the complex are yet to be sequenced:[22][23]

  • R. afranicus Bakkes, 2020 - 'Afrotropical lineage'
  • R. camicasi Morel, Mouchet & Rodhain, 1976
  • R. guilhoni Morel & Vassiliades, 1963
  • R. leporis Pomerantsev, 1946 [g]
  • R. linnaei Audouin, 1826 - 'tropical lineage'
  • R. moucheti Morel, 1965 [h]
  • R. pumilio Schulze, 1935
  • R. pusillus Gil Collado, 1936
  • R. rossicus Yakimov & Kol-Yakimova, 1911
  • R. rutilus Koch, 1844 - 'southeastern European lineage'
  • R. sanguineus sensu stricto Latreille, 1806
  • R. schulzei Olenev 1929 [i]
  • R. secundus Feldman-Muhsam, 1952
  • R. sulcatus Neumann, 1908
  • R. turanicus Pomerantsev, 1936
Suspect
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  • Rhipicephalus bergeoni Morel & Balis, 1976 [j]
  • Rhipicephalus hibericus Millán, Rodriguez-Pastor & Estrada-Peña, 2024 [k]

Subgenus Boophilus

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Boophilus was once considered a separate genus, but studies in the early 2000s resulted in Boophilus being made a subgenus of Rhipicephalus.[24] Although Boophilus has been included in the Rhipicephalus genus, their morphology is different from the typical Rhipicephalus species.[5][6]

Notes

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  1. ^ Provisionally valid; possibly a synonym of R. ziemanni
  2. ^ Treated as a synonym of R. pseudolongus in Walker et al. (2000)
  3. ^ R. hibericus is suspect. Millán et al. (2024) described R. hibericus from ticks, relying primarily on reproductive isolation experiments, but used specimens (Zaragoza, Spain) that were not from the type locality (Montpellier, France). Kelava et al. (2025) and Dantas-Torres (2024) both found that the species was not distinct, genetically, from R. sanguineus s.s.
  4. ^ Females and instars are very similar to R. pulchellus
  5. ^ Highly similar to R. jeanneli
  6. ^ Invalid as a nomen nudum as per Guglielmone et al. (2010)
  7. ^ This species has not been confirmed to cluster, genetically, within the complex.
  8. ^ This species has not been confirmed to cluster, genetically, within the complex.
  9. ^ This species has not been confirmed to cluster, genetically, within the complex.
  10. ^ Although R. burgeoni is traditionally included in the species complex, it has not been able to be resolved within the group. Dantas‑Torres et al (2024) considers it separate.
  11. ^ Although Millán et al (2024) describe the species with differential morphology and reproductive isolation, Kelava et al (2025) found the species clusters with the R. sanguineus s.s. clade with a pairwise genetic difference of less than 0.5% Dantas-Torres, Sousa-Paula & Otranto (2024) report similar findings. R. hibericus is likely a synonym of R. sanguineus sensu stricto.

References

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  1. ^ Koch, C. L. (1844). "Systematische Übersicht über die Ordnung der Zecken". Archiv für Naturgeschichte. 10 (1): 238–239.
  2. ^ Dantas-Torres, Filipe; de Sousa-Paula, Lucas C.; Otranto, Domenico (2024-12-27). "The Rhipicephalus sanguineus group: updated list of species, geographical distribution, and vector competence". Parasites & Vectors. 17 (1): 540. doi:10.1186/s13071-024-06572-3. ISSN 1756-3305. PMC 11681662. PMID 39731169.
  3. ^ a b Olwoch, J. M., et al. (2007). Climate change and the genus Rhipicephalus (Acari: Ixodidae) in Africa. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 74(1), 45-72.
  4. ^ a b c d Walker, J.B., Keirans, J.E. & Horak, I.G. (2000). The Genus Rhipicephalus (Acari, Ixodidae): A Guide to the Brown Ticks of the World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48008-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ a b c Beati, L. and J. E. Keirans. (2001). Analysis of the systematic relationships among ticks of the genera Rhipicephalus and Boophilus (Acari: Ixodidae) based on mitochondrial 12S ribosomal DNA gene sequences and morphological characters. The Journal of Parasitology 87(1), 32.
  6. ^ a b Horak, Ivan G.; Heyne, Heloise; Williams, Roy; Gallivan, G. James; Spickett, Arthur M.; Bezuidenhout, J. Dürr; Estrada-Peña, Agustín (2018). The Ixodid Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) of Southern Africa. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-70642-9. ISBN 978-3-319-70640-5.
  7. ^ Arnaudov, Atanas D.; Arnaudov, Dimo Y. (January 1, 2017). "Ixodid Ticks on Domestic Ruminants: an Investigation in the Valley of Maritsa River in Plovdiv Region, Bulgaria". Acta Zoologica Bulgarica (Suppl. 8): 223. ISSN 0324-0770. OCLC 7091676742.
  8. ^ Rhipicephalus. Tick Identification Key. University of Lincoln.
  9. ^ Ahmed, Jabbar; Alp, Hatice; Aksin, Muhammed; Seitzer, Ulrike (2007). "Current status of ticks in Asia". Parasitology Research. 101 (S2): 159–162. doi:10.1007/s00436-007-0696-3. ISSN 0932-0113.
  10. ^ Daniel E. Sonenshine, R. Michael Roe (2014). Overview: Ticks, People, and Animals in Biology of ticks, Volume 1 (Second ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-937927-9. OCLC 862106136.
  11. ^ Pienaar, Ronel; Neitz, Albert; Mans, Ben (2018-05-14). "Tick Paralysis: Solving an Enigma". Veterinary Sciences. 5 (2): 53. doi:10.3390/vetsci5020053. ISSN 2306-7381. PMC 6024606. PMID 29757990.
  12. ^ Wood, William F.; Leahy, Mary G..; Galun, R.; Prestwich, G. D.; Meinwald, J.; Purnell, R. E.; Payne, J. (1975). "Phenols as Sex Pheromones of Ixodid Ticks: A General Phenomen?". J. Chemical Ecology. 1: 501–509. doi:10.1007/BF00988590.
  13. ^ Guglielmone, Alberto A.; Petney, Trevor N.; Robbins, Richard G. (2020-11-05). "Ixodidae (Acari: Ixodoidea): descriptions and redescriptions of all known species from 1758 to December 31, 2019". Zootaxa. 4871 (1): 1–322. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4871.1.1. ISSN 1175-5334.
  14. ^ Bakkes, Deon K.; Chitimia-Dobler, Lidia; Matloa, Dikeledi; Oosthuysen, Morné; Mumcuoglu, Kosta Y.; Mans, Ben J.; Matthee, Conrad A. (2020-07-01). "Integrative taxonomy and species delimitation of Rhipicephalus turanicus (Acari: Ixodida: Ixodidae)". International Journal for Parasitology. 50 (8): 577–594. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2020.04.005. ISSN 0020-7519.
  15. ^ Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Horak, Ivan G.; Mulumba-Mfumu, Leopold K. (2013). "A New Species of Rhipicephalus (Acari: Ixodidae), a Parasite of Red River Hogs and Domestic Pigs in the Democratic Republic of Congo". Journal of Medical Entomology. 50 (3): 479–484. doi:10.1603/ME12266. hdl:2263/40531. PMID 23802441.
  16. ^ Millán, Javier; Rodríguez-Pastor, Ruth; Estrada-Peña, Agustín (2024-07-01). "Description of Rhipicephalus hibericus sp. nov. (Ixodoidea: Ixodidae), a species of the Rhipicephalus sanguineus group in southwestern Europe". Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases. 15 (4) 102340. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2024.102340. ISSN 1877-959X.
  17. ^ Šlapeta, Jan; Chandra, Shona; Halliday, Bruce (2021). "The "tropical lineage" of the brown dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato identified as Rhipicephalus linnaei (Audouin, 1826)". International Journal for Parasitology. 51 (6): 431–436. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2021.02.001.
  18. ^ Šlapeta, Jan; Halliday, Bruce; Dunlop, Jason A.; Nachum-Biala, Yaarit; Salant, Harold; Ghodrati, Sajjad; Modrý, David; Harrus, Shimon (2023-01-01). "The "southeastern Europe" lineage of the brown dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus (sensu lato) identified as Rhipicephalus rutilus Koch, 1844: Comparison with holotype and generation of mitogenome reference from Israel". Current Research in Parasitology & Vector-Borne Diseases. 3 100118. doi:10.1016/j.crpvbd.2023.100118. ISSN 2667-114X.
  19. ^ Mumcuoglu, Kosta Y.; Estrada-Peña, Agustín; Tarragona, Evelina L.; Sebastian, Patrick S.; Guglielmone, Alberto A.; Nava, Santiago (2022-03-01). "Reestablishment of Rhipicephalus secundus Feldman-Muhsam, 1952 (Acari: Ixodidae)". Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases. 13 (2) 101897. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2022.101897. ISSN 1877-959X.
  20. ^ Kitaoka, Shigeo; Suzuki, Hiroshi (1983). "Studies on the Parasite Fauna of Thailand: 5. Parasitic ticks on mammals and description of Ixodes siamensis sp. n. and Rhipicephalus tetracornus sp. n. (Acarina: Ixodidae)". Tropical Medicine. 25 (4): 205–219. hdl:10069/4366.
  21. ^ Guglielmone, Alberto A.; Robbins, Richard G.; Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Petney, Trevor N.; Estrada-Peña, Agustín; Horak, Ivan G. (2009). "Comments on controversial tick (Acari: Ixodida) species names and species described or resurrected from 2003 to 2008" (PDF). Experimental and Applied Acarology. 48 (4): 311–327. doi:10.1007/s10493-009-9246-2. hdl:2263/13757. PMID 19169832. S2CID 29053875.
  22. ^ Dantas-Torres, Filipe; de Sousa-Paula, Lucas C.; Otranto, Domenico (2024-12-27). "The Rhipicephalus sanguineus group: updated list of species, geographical distribution, and vector competence". Parasites & Vectors. 17 (1): 540. doi:10.1186/s13071-024-06572-3. ISSN 1756-3305. PMC 11681662. PMID 39731169.
  23. ^ Kelava, Samuel; Nakao, Ryo; Mans, Ben J.; Cho, Mingeun; Mateo, Kynan B. T.; Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Shao, Renfu; Gofton, Alexander W.; Teo, Ernest J. M.; Ito, Takuya; Barker, Dayana; Barker, Stephen C. (2025-09-01). "Are there 16 species of brown dog ticks? Phylogenies from 60 entire mitochondrial genomes and 162 cox1 sequences reveal 16 species-level clades in the Rhipicephalus (Rhipicephalus) sanguineus group☆☆". International Journal for Parasitology. 55 (11): 581–594. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2025.04.016. ISSN 0020-7519.
  24. ^ Murrell, Anna; Barker, Stephen C. (2003). "Synonymy of Boophilus Curtice, 1891 with Rhipicephalus Koch, 1844 (Acari: Ixodidae)". Systematic Parasitology. 56 (3): 169–172. doi:10.1023/B:SYPA.0000003802.36517.a0. PMID 14707501. S2CID 995415.

Further reading

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  • Horak, I. G.; et al. (2000). The Genus Rhipicephalus (Acardi, Ixodidae): A Guide to the Brown Ticks of the World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-521-48008-6.
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