Red Crag Formation

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Red Crag Formation
Stratigraphic range:
Late Pliocene - Early Pleistocene
~3.3–2.5 Ma
↓
Red Crag at Bawdsey Cliff in Suffolk
TypeGeological formation
Unit ofCrag Group
Sub-unitsSizewell Member
UnderliesNorwich Crag Formation
OverliesCoralline Crag Formation or London Clay (unconformity)
Thicknessup to 20 metres (70 ft), locally up to 45 m, offshore up to 70 m
Lithology
PrimarySand
Location
RegionEurope
CountryEngland

The Red Crag Formation is a geological formation in England, deposited from the latest Pliocene to the earliest Pleistocene (Gelasian).[1] It outcrops in south-eastern Suffolk and north-eastern Essex. The name derives from its iron-stained reddish colour and crag which is an East Anglian word for shells. It is part of the Crag Group, a series of notably marine strata which belong to a period when Britain was connected to continental Europe by the Weald–Artois Anticline, and the area in which the Crag Group was deposited was a tidally dominated marine bay.[2] This bay would have been subjected to enlargement and contraction brought about by transgressions and regressions driven by the 40,000-year Milankovitch cycles.

The sediment in the outcrops mainly consists of coarse-grained and shelly sands that were deposited in sand waves (megaripples) that migrated parallel to the shore in a south-westward direction.[3] The most common fossils are bivalves and gastropods[4] that were often worn by the abrasive environment.[2] The most extensive exposure is found at Bawdsey Cliff, which is designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI);[5] here a width of around 2 kilometres (1.2 miles) of Crag is exposed. At the coastline by Walton-on-the-Naze, remains of megalodon were found.[6]

The Red Crag Formation at depth in eastern Suffolk clearly has one member, the Sizewell Member, a coarse shelly sand with thin beds of clay and silt.[7] It was interpreted as having been deposited in large scale sand waves where the sea bed was deeper. The overlying Thorpeness Member, was provisionally assigned to the Red Crag based on its lithology but there is more evidence to suggest that it is part of the Norwich Crag Formation.

It has been proposed that the Red Crag started in the late Pliocene and to have possibly extended up into the early Pleistocene, but there is disagreement on more precise dating. According to the British Geological Survey,[8] the Red Crag sits within a segment of time from about 3.3 to 2.5 mya. It is considered that the Red Crag at Walton-on-the–Naze is the oldest and that it was deposited in only a few decades at some time between 2.9 and 2.6 mya.[9] This has led to the UK stratigraphic stage name Waltonian, which is usually correlated with the final Pliocene Reuverian Stage in the Netherlands.[10] While the precise age of the formation is uncertain, it is generally suggested that deposition of the formation as a whole spanned around 600-800,000 years.[1] There are difficulties in reconciling how the Red Crag equates with international chronological stages. In particular, the start and end dates are poorly defined due to the general paucity of age-diagnostic stratigraphic indicators and the fragmentary nature of the geology. It can also be difficult to separate the Red Crag from the overlying Norwich Crag Formation.

The base of the formation contains a nodule-rich bed (termed the "Nodule Bed", or "Coprolite Bed") with fossils including terrestrial vertebrates (as well as marine fossils such as those of whales and shark teeth), some of which were reworked from deposits considerably older than the Red Crag Formation itself and often display abrasion and polish indicating reworking.[11] While some of these animals are as old as the Eocene (such as Hyracotherium and Coryphodon, originating from the London Clay),[12] most originate from the Pliocene and late Miocene, at least as early as MN 11-12, around 9-7 million years ago in the case of some species.[11] The presence of monkeys and other thermophilic species implies that during the late Miocene-early Pliocene, the region was probably considerably warmer than today, and had a subtropical climate.[11] During the Late Pliocene, the region is thought to have had a temperate climate.[13] The Red Crag also contains Early Pleistocene fossils of animals similar in age to the formation itself, though terrestrial vertebrate fossils from the rest of the Red Crag are considerably rarer than those from the nodule bed.[12] The phosphatic nodules and bones in the bed were historically during the mid-late 19th century ground up on industrial scales to use as fertilizer.[14]

Paleobiota

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Mammals

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Proboscidea

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Genus/species Locality Notes Image
"Mammut" borsoni[12][13] Nodule Bed A member of the family Mammutidae, closely related to the American mastodon (Mammut americanum). One of the largest land mammals ever, originates from Pliocene deposits
Diagram of a "M." borsoni skeleton from Milia, Greece
Anancus arvernensis[11] Nodule Bed and higher stratigraphic layers A "tetralophodont gomphothere", related to elephants, dating to the Pliocene-Early Pleistocene
Skeleton of Anancus arvernensis on display in Italy
Mammuthus rumanus[13] The oldest mammoth species known outside of Africa, dating to the Pliocene
Mammuthus meridionalis[15] A large mammoth dating to the Early Pleistocene
A M. meridionalis skeleton on display in France

Ungulates

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Genus/species Locality Notes Image
Proboscidipparion sp.[16] Nodule Bed Known from teeth. A three toed equine belonging to the extinct tribe Hipparionini. Suggested to be Pliocene in age. Previously referred to as "Hipparion" crassum. Although previously hipparionine teeth remains from the Red Crag have been attributed to other genera, including Plesiohipparion and Hipparion sensu lato, a 2021 paper suggested that all hipparionine remains from the Red Crag may represent Proboscidipparion.[16]
Skull of the related Proboscidipparion pater from China
Plesiohipparion rocinantis[17] Nodule Bed A three toed equine belonging to the extinct tribe Hipparionini. Suggested to be late Pliocene in age
Equus major[17] A large equine of Early Pleistocene age
Stephanorhinus etruscus[13] A rhinoceros belonging to the extinct genus Stephanorhinus, dating to the Late Pliocene-Early Pleistocene
Skeleton of S. etruscus on display in Switzerland
Tapirus arvernensis[13] Nodule Bed An extinct tapir belonging to the genus Tapirus, dating to the Pliocene
Crushed skull on display in Austria
Dasychoerus arvernensis[11] Nodule Bed An extinct swine (Suidae) dating to the Late Pliocene (MN zone 16),[11] related to living African giant forest hogs.[18]
Hippopotamodon sp.[11] Nodule Bed A swine (Suidae) either representing the species H. erymanthius or H. major, likely originate from the Late Miocene (MN zone 11-12, around 9-7 million years ago).
Skull of Hippopotamodon major on display in Spain
Parabos sp.[13] A bovine
Cervus perrieri[13][15] Nodule Bed A large deer dating to the Pliocene, also known as Praeelaphus perrieri
Metacervocerus pardinensis[13][15] Nodule Bed A medium sized deer dating to the Pliocene, also referred to as Cervus pardinensis
Procapreolus cusanus[13][15] Nodule Bed A small deer dating to the Pliocene
Eucladoceros falconeri[15] Red Crag proper A deer of Early Pleistocene age
Gazella sp.[12] A gazelle of Early Pleistocene age
Leptobos etruscus[19] Nodule Bed A bovine of Pliocene age closely related to living bison.
Skeleton of L. etruscus on display in Italy

Primates

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Genus/species Locality Notes Image
Mesopithecus sp.[11] Nodule Bed Known from a single tooth. A monkey belonging to the subfamily Colobinae, related to living African colobus monkeys and Asian langurs. Possibly of Late Miocene-Early Pliocene age.
Life restoration of the related Mesopithecus pentelicus from China, Artwork by Mauricio Anton.
Macaca sp.[11] An indeterminate macaque known from a tooth, possibly of Early Pliocene age. Has affinities with the Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus), which has a fossil record in Europe spanning the Pliocene and into the Pleistocene.

Rodents

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Genus/species Locality Notes Image
Hystrix sp.[12] An Old World porcupine, of Early Pleistocene age
Castor fiber[12] Commonly known as the Eurasian beaver, species extant, remains are of Early Pleistocene age
Trogontherium minus [20] Nodule Bed A member of the beaver family (Castoridae) belonging to the extinct genus Trogontherium, of Pliocene-Early Pleistocene age

Carnivorans

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Genus/species Locality Notes Image
Parailurus anglicus[11] A member of the family Ailuridae, closely related to the living red panda, of Pliocene age
Tooth of P. anglicus from Italy
Tooth of P. anglicus from Italy
Puma pardoides[21] A medium sized cat related to the living cougar/mountian lion (Puma concolor)
Skull on display in Italy
Pliocrocuta perrieri[22] A large bone cracking hyena, of Pliocene-Early Pleistocene age
Skull on display in Italy
Ursidae indet.[22] A large bear
Ontocetus emmonsi[23] An extinct genus of pinniped in the family Odobenidae, related to the living walrus. Known from tusks. Previously referred to as Odobenus huxleyi and Trichecodon huxleyi

Cetaceans

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Genus/species Locality Notes Image
Balaenopteridae indet.[24] Several species of rorqual whales have been described based on partial tympanic bullae, including Balaenoptera definata (Owen, 1844) Balaenoptera emarginata (Owen, 1844) and Balaenoptera or Balaena gibbosa Owen, 1844, but these are now considered nomina dubia due to their fragmentary nature
"Balaenodon physaloides"[25][26] A problematic toothed whale taxon known from abraded teeth, suggested to be part of Physeteroidea, the group that includes the sperm whale and its close relatives.
Delphinidae indet.[27] Indeterminate remains of oceanic dolphins

Fish

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Genus/species Locality Notes Image
Otodus megalodon[28] Known from a tooth. A giant macropredatory shark, the largest shark ever
Megalodon tooth from Chile
Micromesistius poutassou[29] Known from an otolith. Commonly known as blue whiting, species extant
Drawing of a modern blue whiting

Invertebrates

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Over 240 mollusc species have been described from the Red Crag, making the table below only a small fraction of the total number of invertebrates.[30]

Genus/species Locality Notes Image
Glycymeris glycymeris[31] Commonly known as a "dog cockle", belongs to the bittersweet clam family Glycymerididae, species extant
Modern specimen of a dog cockle (Glycymeris glycymeris)
Tapes [32] A saltwater clam
Spisula[32] A surf clam
Specimen of a modern Spisula solida surf clam
Macoma[32] A saltwater clam, includes extinct species
Mya arenaria[31] Commonly known as the soft-shell clam, species extant
Modern soft-shell clam (Mya arenaria) valve
Mytilus edulis[31] Commonly known as the blue mussel, species extant
Modern blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) valve
Varicorbula gibba[32] A bivalve commonly known as a basket shell, species extant
Modern specimen
Venerupis [32] A bivalve commonly known as carpet shells
Modern Venerupis corrugata specimen
Neptunea contraria[32] A true whelk, species extant though with a much more southerly modern range
Modern specimen
Nucella lapillus[31] Commonly known as the dog whelk, species extant
Modern specimen
Cerastoderma edule[31] Known as the common cockle, species extant
Modern specimen
Anomia[32] A saltwater clam,
Modern specimen of Anomia ephippium
Buccinum[32] A true whelk
Modern specimen of Buccinum undatum
Capulus[32] A cap snail
Modern specimen of Capulus ungaricus
Calyptraea chinensis[31] A superficially limpet-like gastropod, commonly known as the Chinese hat snail, species extant
Modern specimen
Emarginula crassa[31] A species of keyhole limpet, still extant
Modern specimen
Venus casina[31] A saltwater clam, species extant
Drawing of modern specimen
Aporrhais pespelecani[31] A gastropod, species extant
Modern specimen
Turritella communis[31] A sea snail, species extant
Modern specimen
Euspira catena[31] A sea snail, commonly known as the large necklace shell, species extant
Modern specimen
Colus gracilis[31] A sea snail, species extant
Modern specimen
Ensis[32] A razor clam
Modern specimen of Ensis minor
Terebratula[32] A terebratulid brachiopod
A fossil specimen of Terebrantula ampulla from the Pliocene of Spain
  • Geological map of the Crag Deposits. From Chatwin (1954).
    Geological map of the Crag Deposits. From Chatwin (1954).[33]
  • Fossils from the Red Crag. From Chatwin (1954).
    Fossils from the Red Crag. From Chatwin (1954).[33]
  • Shark tooth fossil from the Red Crag at Felixstowe in Suffolk
    Shark tooth fossil from the Red Crag at Felixstowe in Suffolk

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b Davies, Neil S.; Shillito, Anthony P.; McMahon, William J. (November 2019). "Where does the time go? Assessing the chronostratigraphic fidelity of sedimentary geological outcrops in the Pliocene–Pleistocene Red Crag Formation, eastern England". Journal of the Geological Society. 176 (6): 1154–1168. Bibcode:2019JGSoc.176.1154D. doi:10.1144/jgs2019-056.
  2. ^ a b Lee, Woods & Moorlock (2015), pp. 110–111.
  3. ^ Dixon, R. G. (1979). "Sedimentary facies in Red Crag (Lower Pleistocene, East Anglia)". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 90 (3): 117–132. Bibcode:1979PrGA...90..117D. doi:10.1016/s0016-7878(79)80014-0.
  4. ^ Dixon, R. G. (1977). Studies in mollusca of the Red Crag (Pleistocene, East Anglia) (PhD). University of London. Retrieved 18 April 2018 – via British Library.
  5. ^ "Designated Sites: Bawdsey Cliff" (PDF). Natural England. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
  6. ^ UK Fossils - Walton on the Naze
  7. ^ Zalasiewicz, J. A.; Mathers, S. J.; Hughes, M. J.; Gibbard, P. L.; Peglar, S. M.; Harland, R.; Nicholson, R. A.; Boulton, G. S.; Cambridge, P.; Wealthall, G. P. (19 December 1988). "Stratigraphy and palaeoenvironments of the Red Crag and Norwich Crag formations between Aldeburgh and Sizewell, Suffolk, England". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 322 (1210): 221–272. Bibcode:1988RSPTB.322..221Z. doi:10.1098/rstb.1988.0125.
  8. ^ Lee, Woods & Moorlock (2015), pp. 92–93.
  9. ^ Head, M. J. (1998). "Pollen and dinoflagellates from the Red Crag at Walton on the Naze, Essex". Geological Magazine. 135: 803–817. doi:10.1017/S0016756898001745.
  10. ^ "Global Chronostratigraphical Correlation Table for the Last 2.7 Million Years". Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy. University of Cambridge. 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2016.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Pickford, Martin; Gommery, Dominique; Ingicco, Thomas (2023-11-07). "Macaque molar from the Red Crag Formation, Waldringfield, England". Fossil Imprint. 79 (1): 26–36. doi:10.37520/fi.2023.003.
  12. ^ a b c d e f Stuart, A. J. (May 1974). "Pleistocene History of the British Vertebrate Fauna". Biological Reviews. 49 (2): 225–266. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1974.tb01574.x.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i Rivals, Florent; Lister, Adrian M. (August 2016). "Dietary flexibility and niche partitioning of large herbivores through the Pleistocene of Britain". Quaternary Science Reviews. 146: 116–133. Bibcode:2016QSRv..146..116R. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.06.007.
  14. ^ Hunt, A.P. ∙ Lucas, S.G. ∙ Lichtig, A.J. A helical coprolite from the Red Crag Formation (Plio-Pleistocene) of England N. M. Mus. Nat. Hist. Sci. Bull. 2015; 67:59-247
  15. ^ a b c d e A. Lister. (1999). The Pliocene deer of the Red Crag Nodule Bed (UK). Deinsea, 7(1), 215–222.
  16. ^ a b Cirilli, Omar; Bernor, Raymond L.; Rook, Lorenzo (March 2021). "New insights on the Early Pleistocene equids from Roca-Neyra (France, central Europe): implications for the Hipparion LAD and the Equus FAD in Europe". Journal of Paleontology. 95 (2): 406–425. Bibcode:2021JPal...95..406C. doi:10.1017/jpa.2020.99. hdl:2158/1222918.
  17. ^ a b Cirilli, Omar; Machado, Helena; Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquin; Barrón-Ortiz, Christina I.; Davis, Edward; Jass, Christopher N.; Jukar, Advait M.; Landry, Zoe; Marín-Leyva, Alejandro H.; Pandolfi, Luca; Pushkina, Diana; Rook, Lorenzo; Saarinen, Juha; Scott, Eric; Semprebon, Gina (2022-08-24). "Evolution of the Family Equidae, Subfamily Equinae, in North, Central and South America, Eurasia and Africa during the Plio-Pleistocene". Biology. 11 (9): 1258. doi:10.3390/biology11091258. PMC 9495906. PMID 36138737.
  18. ^ Pickford, Martin; Obada, Théodor (March 2016). "Pliocene suids from Musaitu and Dermenji, Moldova: implications for understanding the origin of African Kolpochoerus Van Hoepen & Van Hoepen, 1932". Geodiversitas. 38 (1): 99–134. Bibcode:2016Geodv..38...99P. doi:10.5252/g2016n1a5. ISSN 1280-9659.
  19. ^ Breda, M.; Collinge, S.E.; Parfitt, S.A.; Lister, A.M. (December 2010). "Metric analysis of ungulate mammals in the early Middle Pleistocene of Britain, in relation to taxonomy and biostratigraphy". Quaternary International. 228 (1–2): 136–156. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2010.05.010.
  20. ^ Mayhew, D. F. (1978-01-13). "Reinterpretation of the extinct beaver Trogontherium (Mammalia, Rodentia)". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences. 281 (983): 407–438. Bibcode:1978RSPTB.281..407M. doi:10.1098/rstb.1978.0004. ISSN 0080-4622.
  21. ^ Madurell-Malapeira, Joan (2025). "A critical review of the Pliocene and Pleistocene European Felidae fossil record". Bollettino della Società Paleontologica Italiana. 64 (1): 133–163. doi:10.4435/BSPI.2025.08 (inactive 3 September 2025). ISSN 0375-7633.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2025 (link)
  22. ^ a b Turner, Alan (December 2009). "The evolution of the guild of large Carnivora of the British Isles during the Middle and Late Pleistocene". Journal of Quaternary Science. 24 (8): 991–1005. Bibcode:2009JQS....24..991T. doi:10.1002/jqs.1278. ISSN 0267-8179.
  23. ^ Boisville, Mathieu; Chatar, Narimane; Kohno, Naoki (2024-08-13). "New species of Ontocetus (Pinnipedia: Odobenidae) from the Lower Pleistocene of the North Atlantic shows similar feeding adaptation independent to the extant walrus (Odobenus rosmarus)". PeerJ. 12 e17666. doi:10.7717/peerj.17666. ISSN 2167-8359. PMC 11328838. PMID 39157769.
  24. ^ Deméré, Thomas A.; Berta, Annalisa; McGowen, Michael R. (June 2005). "The Taxonomic and Evolutionary History of Fossil and Modern Balaenopteroid Mysticetes". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 12 (1–2): 99–143. doi:10.1007/s10914-005-6944-3. ISSN 1064-7554.
  25. ^ Hampe, O. (2006-02-01). "Middle/late Miocene hoplocetine sperm whale remains (Odontoceti: Physeteridae) of North Germany with an emended classification of the Hoplocetinae". Fossil Record. 9 (1): 61–86. Bibcode:2006FossR...9...61H. doi:10.1002/mmng.200600002. ISSN 2193-0074.
  26. ^ Fitzgerald, Erich M. G. (July 2011). "A fossil sperm whale (Cetacea, Physeteroidea) from the Pleistocene of Nauru, equatorial southwest Pacific". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 31 (4): 929–931. Bibcode:2011JVPal..31..929F. doi:10.1080/02724634.2011.579670. ISSN 0272-4634.
  27. ^ Fitzgerald EMG. 2005. Pliocene marine mammals from the Whalers Bluff Formation of Portland, Victoria, Australia Memoirs of Museum Victoria 62(1):67-89
  28. ^ Boessenecker, Robert W.; Ehret, Dana J.; Long, Douglas J.; Churchill, Morgan; Martin, Evan; Boessenecker, Sarah J. (2019-02-13). "The Early Pliocene extinction of the mega-toothed shark Otodus megalodon: a view from the eastern North Pacific". PeerJ. 7 e6088. doi:10.7717/peerj.6088. ISSN 2167-8359. PMC 6377595. PMID 30783558.
  29. ^ Stinton, Fred (January 1985). "British Quaternary fish otoliths". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 96 (3): 199–215. doi:10.1016/S0016-7878(85)80002-X.
  30. ^ "Chapter 11 The Red Crag | GeoGuide". geoguide.scottishgeologytrust.org. Retrieved 2025-09-25.
  31. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Harrison, Martin David (1984) A computer aided palaeoecological study of selected Red Crag (Lower Pleistocene) gastropods. Doctoral thesis, Polytechnic of North London.
  32. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Dixon, Roger (June 2011). "Field Meeting to the Bawdsey Peninsula, Suffolk, England, 22nd May 2010, to examine London Clay, Coralline Crag and Red Crag deposits". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 122 (3): 514–523. doi:10.1016/j.pgeola.2011.02.002.
  33. ^ a b Chatwin, C.P. (1954). East Anglia and adjoining areas. British Regional Geology (3rd ed.). London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Lee, J. R.; Woods, M. A.; Moorlock, B. S. P., eds. (2015). British Regional Geology: East Anglia (5th ed.). British Geological Survey. ISBN 978-0-85272-823-9.

51°59′58″N 1°25′16″E / 51.9994°N 1.4211°E / 51.9994; 1.4211