Michael Gazzaniga

  1. Home
  2. Wiki
Michael Gazzaniga
Born (1939-12-12) December 12, 1939 (age 85)
Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Alma materDartmouth College (BA)
California Institute of Technology (PhD)
Known forSplit-brain research, cerebral lateralization, cognitive neuroscience
AwardsElected to the Society of Experimental Psychologists, Elected to the National Academy of Sciences, Honorary doctorate from Trinity College Dublin, Honorary doctorate from Dartmouth College, Honorary doctorate from University of Aberdeen.
Scientific career
FieldsPsychology, neuroscience
InstitutionsUniversity of California, Santa Barbara
ThesisSome effects of cerebral commissurotomy on monkey and man (1965)
Doctoral advisorRoger Sperry
Doctoral studentsJoseph E. LeDoux, Richard Nakamura, Joseph E. LeDoux, Michael Miller

Michael Saunders Gazzaniga (born December 12, 1939) is an American cognitive neuroscientist and professor emeritus of psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara.[1] He is the founder and retired director of the SAGE Center for the Study of the Mind at UCSB (2006–2023).[2]

Biography

[edit]

In 1961, Gazzaniga graduated from Dartmouth College with a B.A in zoology.[3] In 1964, he received a Ph.D. in psychobiology from the California Institute of Technology,[4] where he carried out research on human split-brain patients for his doctoral thesis under Roger Sperry.[5] In his subsequent work, Gazzaniga has made important advances in research concerning the laterization of brain function and communication between the left and right cerebral hemispheres.[6]

Career

[edit]

He has had a distinguished career in the field of cognitive neuroscience. Gazzaniga's academic career began as an assistant professor of psychology at UCSB in 1967.[7] Here he met a future life-long friend and collaborator, Colin Blakemore, a graduate student at the University of California Berkeley. Together they edited the Handbook of Psychobiology in 1975.[8] In 1969 he moved to New York University graduate school as an assistant professor and in 1972 became a full professor.[4] In 1973 he took a position as professor of psychology at the State University of New York at Stony Brook (and later became a professor of social sciences in Medicine).[9] That same year, at the invitation of Dartmouth neurosurgeon Donald Wilson, Gazzaniga began to study a new series of split-brain patients in New Hampshire with his graduate student, Joseph LeDoux. [10] They put together a mobile lab and drove from New York to New Hampshire every month to test what became known as the "east-coast" series of split-brain patients, one of whom was patient P.S.[11] Patient P.S. was the first split-brain patient whose right hemisphere could read. It could not speak, but it could spell out answers to questions (see Patient P.S. below). Gazzaniga's theory of the left hemisphere's interpreter was first formulated at this time. After he received his doctorate, LeDoux turned his efforts to what was then a mostly ignored field, emotion, and with meticulous research, gave it a firm foundation.[12]

In 1977 Gazzaniga was offered a job at Cornell University Medical College when Fred Plum, the chairman of the neurology department, decided his residents needed some schooling in neuropsychology.[13] He appointed Gazzaniga as the Director of the Division of Cognitive Neuroscience and a professor of Neurology and Psychology, where he stayed until 1988.

Meanwhile, in 1978, he and his good friend and colleague from Rockefeller University, Professor of Psychology George A. Miller, launched a new field of study by first giving it a name: Cognitive Neuroscience.[14] [15]Cognitive neuroscience integrates the methods of cognitive psychology with those of systems neuroscience to help understand how mental processes emerge from neural activity. With a small grant from the Sloan Foundation, Gazzaniga established the Cognitive Neuroscience Institute to begin a new program focused on research and on teaching the brain mechanisms involved with cognitive processes.[16]

With continued funding from the Sloan Foundation, Gazzaniga extended the Cornell program to include a consortium of New York City universities to help establish the growing field of cognitive neuroscience and began a postdoctural training program.[16] In 1982 he was elected Fellow of the Society of Experimental Psychologists in recognition for his studies on split-brain patients. In 1988, still making monthly trips to New Hampshire in the mobile camper lab, he was offered a professorship at Dartmouth Medical School.

From 1988 to 1992, he was the Andrew W. Thomson Jr. Professor of Psychiatry and the director of the Cognitive Neuroscience Program at Dartmouth Medical School.[17] During that time, Gazzaniga founded the first cognitive neuroscience degree-granting program in the United States, founded and served as the first editor-in-chief of the Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience through 2003,[18] and with help from the James S. McDonnell Foundation,[19] initiated and ran the Summer Institute in Cognitive Neuroscience at Dartmouth.[20] The summer camp brought together cognitive neuroscience graduate students, postdoctural researchers, and leaders in the various fields of cognitive neuroscience for a 2 week lecture and laboratory course each summer on a cutting edge topic.

After his time at Dartmouth Medical School, Gazzaniga moved to the University of California Davis in 1992 where he launched and served as the first Director of the Center for Neuroscience,[21] where he continued to expand his pioneering research on brain function and cognitive processes.

In 1993, he founded, along with George R. Mangun, Steve Pinker, Patricia Reuter-Lorenz, Daniel Schacter and Art Shimamura, the Cognitive Neuroscience Society, a professional organization dedicated to advancing the field.[9][22] The inaugural meeting was held in San Francisco in 1994. 1993 also marks the first summer that a 3 week stock-taking of the sub-specialty fields of cognitive neuroscience began. Eight leaders in each of the fields were invited for an intense meeting of self-examination and to write a chapter about their work. This stock-taking of the field continues to occur every 5 years. The result is the 6 volume series, The Cognitive Neurosciences, published by MIT Press.[23]

In 1996, he returned to Dartmouth as the David T. McLaughlin Distinguished Professor of Psychological and Brain Sciences and as founding director of the Center for Cognitive Neuroscience. Under his leadership, Dartmouth was the first college to have a functional brain imaging center.[24] He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1997.[25] Gazzaniga served as the Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at Dartmouth College from 2002 to 2004,[26] while concurrently serving on the President's Council on Bioethics from 2002-2009.[27] In 2005, he was elected to National Academy of Medicine.[28]

In 2006, Gazzaniga became the founding Director of the Sage Center for the Study of the Mind at UC Santa Barbara (UCSB), a role he took on after his time at Dartmouth.[29] In 2007, The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation appointed him director of The Law and Neuroscience Project, "the first systematic effort to bring together the worlds of law and science on questions of how courts should deal with recent breakthroughs in neuroscience as they relate to matters of assessing guilt, innocence, punishment, bias, truth-telling, and other issues."[30] At UCSB, he continued to lead research efforts in cognitive neuroscience, while fostering the study of the mind's complex relationship with the brain.[31]

In 2009, he delivered the Gifford Lectures on Mental Life at the University of Edinburgh.[32] In 2011, he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences[33] and received honorary doctorates from Dartmouth College[34] and the University of Aberdeen.[35] In 2019, Trinity College Dublin also awarded him with an honorary doctorate.[36]

Over the course of his career, Gazzaniga's work has contributed to the development of experimental methods to study hemispheric specialization and the brain's role in cognitive functions such as language, reasoning, and facial recognition.[37][38]

Gazzaniga's publication career includes books for a general audience such as The Social Brain,[39] Mind Matters,[40] Nature's Mind,[41] The Ethical Brain[42] Human[43] and Who's in Charge?,[44] which is based on the Gifford lectures he presented at the University of Edinburgh in 2009, and Tales From Both Sides of the Brain.[45] He is also the editor of The Cognitive Neurosciences book series published by the MIT Press, which features the work of nearly 200 scientists and is a sourcebook for the field.[46] His latest book is entitled The Consciousness Instinct: Unraveling the Mystery of How the Brain Makes Mind, published by Farrar, Straus and Giroux in 2018.[47]

Research

[edit]

Early research

[edit]

Gazzaniga is known for his pioneering work in the field of cognitive neuroscience.[48] His research with split-brain patients has been instrumental in understanding the distinct roles of the left and right hemispheres of the brain.[49] In split-brain patients the corpus callosum, the giant nerve bundle which connects the right and left hemispheres, had been severed to limit the transmission of nerve impulses across the brain in the hopes of decreasing previously intractable seizures. The original series of split-brain patients, whose callosotomies had been done in the 1930s in Rochester, New York had been previously tested,[50] and no evidence was found that there was any disruption of the interhemispheric transfer of information after callosotomy.[51][52] Later, however, Sperry and his graduate student Ron Myers found that severing the corpus callosum in monkeys did block the transfer of information.[53]

As a first-year graduate student at Caltech, Gazzaniga, convinced by the monkey research that transfer of information would be interrupted, began to test the first California split-brain patient (patient W.J.) with a testing procedure that had not been done on the previous series of split-brain patients.[54] If he wanted his experiment to work, he had to present information to one hemisphere only. The anatomy of the optic nerve[55] allowed Gazzaniga to communicate solely to one hemisphere or the other. Visual information flashed to the right side of the visual field of both eyes is sent to the left hemisphere, and visual information flashed to the left side of the visual field of both eyes is sent to the right hemisphere. He designed an apparatus that flashed a letter, number or symbol onto a screen to either the right or left visual field while the patient focused on a central point. By fixating on a central point, the quickly flashed figure (200ms) could be isolated to a particular visual field.[56][57]

Patient W.J.

[edit]

Patient W.J. was a World War II paratrooper, the first of a series of patients that underwent a callosotomy on the West Coast.[58][59]

He had developed grand mal seizures after a German soldier knocked him out with a rifle butt after a parachute jump behind enemy lines.[60] When it was suggested that he might benefit from a callosotomy, he was having anywhere from one grand mal seizure a week to seven a day, each requiring a full day to recover. He was ready to risk it. The surgery, which severed his entire corpus callosum and anterior commissure, was a success. W.J. had no more seizures and said he felt no different (except for being seizure free) than he did before surgery.[61] Before surgery, Gazzaniga tested W.J.'s brain functions. This included identifying stimuli presented to the left and right visual fields and identifying objects placed in his hands that were hidden from view, all of which he could easily do. After he had the surgery, the test results were different.[62] When a picture of an object was flashed to his right visual field and he was asked if he saw anything, he quickly named the object. When a picture was flashed to his left visual field, however, he denied seeing anything. Then a circle was flashed on the screen and he was asked to point to whatever he had seen with whichever hand he wished. When the circle was flashed to the right visual field, he pointed to where it had been with his right hand. When it was flashed to his left visual field, even though he denied seeing anything, he pointed to where it had been with his left hand. This seemingly simple test showed that each hemisphere saw a circle when it was shown in the opposite visual field, and each hemisphere, separate from the other, could guide the contralateral hand, which it controls, to point to the circle it had seen, but only the left hemisphere could talk about it. Neither hemisphere knew what the other had seen![63][64]

Another experiment revealed the right hemisphere's was adept at visualspatial relations. A card showing a pattern produced by a set of blocks was put on a table in front of W.J. He was asked to copy the pattern using a set of blocks with his left hand, which was quickly able to reproduce the pattern. When it was his right hand's turn, it fumbled around haphazardly. Indeed, seeing what his right hand was up to, the left hand kept trying to help the fumbling right hand. W.J. had to actually sit on his left hand to stop it from interfering:[65][66] two different mental control systems were competing with each other to solve the problem.

These experiments opened the door to years of research by Gazzaniga and colleagues that has revealed that severing the callosum prevents the transfer of perceptual, sensory, motor, gnostic ( previously learned information about objects, persons, or places collected from our senses)[67] and other types of information between the left and right cerebral hemispheres.[68] Extensive research has shown that many of the brains processes are lateralized, such as speech and language to the left hemisphere,[69] along with analytical thinking and the capacity to interpret (not necessarily correctly) behavior and unconsciously driven emotional states,[70] while visuospatial processing,[71] facial recognition,[72] attentional monitoring,[73] and the ascribing of beliefs to others are right hemisphere processes.[74]

Patient P.S.

[edit]

Patient P.S. was a teenage boy, the first split-brain patient studied from the east coast series who had a full callosotomy.[75] He was also the first split-brain patient in that series who demonstrated extensive language comprehension in the right hemisphere.[76]

His right hemisphere was able to label pictures of objects by spelling out the appropriate word with Scrabble tiles. Even though he was right-handed, he could roughly write words with his left hand, even though he could not speak them.[70] This led Gazzaniga and his graduate student Joseph LeDoux to examine whether the right cerebral hemisphere of the patient would be able to answer subjective and personal questions and, more specifically, whether it possessed its own identity. For example, the two neuroscientists started the experiment by saying "Who," then flashed the rest of the sentence "are you?" to his left visual field and thus his right hemisphere. He spelled out "Paul" (his first name) with his left hand using the tiles.[77]

Selected publications

[edit]
  • Gazzaniga, Michael S. (1970). The Bisected Brain. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. ISBN 978-0-390-35278-1.
  • Gazzaniga, Michael S.; LeDoux, Joseph E. (1978). The Integrated Mind. New York: Plenum Pr. ISBN 978-0-306-31085-0.
  • Gazzaniga, Michael S. (1987). Social Brain: Discovering the Networks of the Mind. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-07850-9.
  • Gazzaniga, Michael S. (1988). Mind Matters: How Mind and Brain Interact to Create our Conscious Lives. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-50095-8.
  • Gazzaniga, Michael S. (1992). Nature's Mind: The Biological Roots of Thinking, Emotions, Sexuality, Language and Intelligence. New York: BasicBooks. ISBN 978-0-465-04863-2.
  • Gazzaniga, Michael S. (2000). The Mind's Past. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22486-5.
  • Gazzaniga, Michael S. (2005). The Ethical Brain. New York [u.a.]: Dana Press. ISBN 978-1-932594-01-0.
  • Senior, Carl; Russell, Tamara; Gazzaniga, Michael S. (2006). Methods in Mind (1st ed.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-19541-6.
  • Gazzaniga, Michael S.; Ivry, Richard B.; Mangun, George R. (2009). Cognitive Neuroscience: The Biology of the Mind (3rd ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-92795-5.
  • Gazzaniga, Michael S. (2009). Human: The Science Behind What Makes Us Unique (1st ed.). New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-089289-0.
  • Gazzaniga, Michael S. (2011). Who's in Charge?: Free Will and the Science of the Brain (1st ed.). New York, NY: Ecco. ISBN 978-0-06-190610-7.
  • Gazzaniga, Michael S. (2015). Tales from Both Sides of the Brain: A Life in Neuroscience (1st ed.). New York, NY: Ecco. ISBN 978-0062228802.
  • Gazzaniga, Michael S. (2018). The Consciousness Instinct: Unraveling the Mystery of How the Brain Makes the Mind (1st ed.). New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0374715502.

Awards

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Michael Gazzaniga | Psychological & Brain Sciences | UCSB". psych.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 2025-10-24.
  2. ^ "The Sage Center for the Study of the Mind | SAGE Center for the Study of the Mind | UC Santa Barbara". www.sagecenter.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 2025-10-24.
  3. ^ "Michael Gazzaniga, PhD". FABBS. 2016-08-30. Retrieved 2025-10-24.
  4. ^ a b "Michael Gazzaniga (PhD '65), Neuroscientist and Pioneer in Split Brain Research". Heritage Project. 2024-09-27. Retrieved 2025-02-18.
  5. ^ Berlucchi, Giovanni; Marzi, Carlo Alberto (2024). "Roger Sperry, the maverick brain scientist who was haunted by psyche". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 18 1392660. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2024.1392660. ISSN 1662-5161. PMC 11043482. PMID 38665896.
  6. ^ Smart People Podcast (2018-06-15). Smart People Podcast: Episode 183 – Dr. Michael Gazzaniga – Left Brain vs. Right Brain. Retrieved 2025-10-26 – via YouTube.
  7. ^ Wielawski, Irene M. "Is Your Brain to Blame?". Dartmouth Alumni Magazine. Retrieved 2025-02-18.
  8. ^ Handbook of Psychobiology. Academic Press. 1975. ISBN 978-0-12-278656-3.
  9. ^ a b Reuter-Lorenz, Patricia A.; Baynes, Kathleen; Mangun, George R.; Phelps, Elizabeth A., eds. (2010). The Cognitive Neuroscience of Mind: A Tribute to Michael S. Gazzaniga. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01401-4.
  10. ^ Wilson, Donald H.; Reeves, Alexander; Gazzaniga, Michael; Culver, Charles (1977). "Cerebral commissurotomy for control of intractable seizures". Neurology. 27 (8): 708–715. doi:10.1212/WNL.27.8.708. PMID 560644.
  11. ^ Gazzaniga, Michael; LeDoux, Joseph E. (1978). The Integrated Mind. New York: Plenum Press. pp. 6–7, 141–151. ISBN 0-306-31085-6.
  12. ^ "The Emotional Brain-New scientist bestseller review". www.cns.nyu.edu. Retrieved 2025-10-28.
  13. ^ Gazzaniga, Michael S. (2015). Tales from Both Sides of the Brain. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-222880-2.
  14. ^ "About CNS". Cognitive Neuroscience Society. Retrieved 2025-10-26.
  15. ^ "Remembering George A. Miller". APS Observer. 25. 2012-09-26.
  16. ^ a b "Documents | Alfred P. Sloan Foundation". sloan.org. Retrieved 2025-10-25.
  17. ^ "Dartmouth Alumnus and Former Dean Elected into National Academy of Sciences | Dartmouth". home.dartmouth.edu. 2011-05-05. Retrieved 2025-04-11.
  18. ^ "Editorial Information | Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | MIT Press". direct.mit.edu. Archived from the original on 2025-08-12. Retrieved 2025-10-25.
  19. ^ "You searched for cognitive neuroscience institute". JSMF. Retrieved 2025-10-26.
  20. ^ "What They Built at Brain Camp (The Chronicle of Higher Education) | Dartmouth". home.dartmouth.edu. 2012-09-04. Retrieved 2025-10-26.
  21. ^ Cummings, Kimberly Pearce (2022-10-25). "History | UC Davis Center for Neuroscience". neuroscience.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved 2025-10-26.
  22. ^ "Birth of Cognitive Neuroscience". Association for Psychological Science - APS. Retrieved 2025-02-18.
  23. ^ "The Cognitive Neurosciences". MIT Press. 2020-05-12. doi:10.7551/mitpre (inactive 26 October 2025). Archived from the original on 2025-08-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of October 2025 (link)
  24. ^ "History". www.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved 2025-10-26.
  25. ^ "Michael Saunders Gazzaniga | American Academy of Arts and Sciences". www.amacad.org. 2025-10-16. Retrieved 2025-10-28.
  26. ^ "Michael Gazzaniga, PhD". FABBS. 2016-08-30. Retrieved 2025-04-11.
  27. ^ "President Names Members of Bioethics Council". georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov. Retrieved 2025-10-28.
  28. ^ "Directory - NAM". nam.edu. 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2025-10-28.
  29. ^ "Michael Gazzaniga | Edge.org". www.edge.org. Retrieved 2025-04-11.
  30. ^ "Fact Sheet: About the Law & Neuroscience Project". www.macfound.org. Retrieved 2025-10-28.
  31. ^ "Interview with Michael Gazzaniga". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1224 (1): 1–8. 2011. Bibcode:2011NYASA1224....1.. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.05998.x. ISSN 1749-6632. PMID 21486292.
  32. ^ "Gifford Lectures". ed.ac.uk. University of Edinburgh. 28 August 2024.
  33. ^ "Michael S. Gazzaniga". nasonline.org. Retrieved 2025-10-28.
  34. ^ "Dartmouth 2011 Honorary Degree Recipient: Michael S. Gazzaniga '61 (Doctor of Science) | Dartmouth". home.dartmouth.edu. 2011-05-12. Retrieved 2025-10-28.
  35. ^ "Leading folk musician among those to be honoured by University of Aberdeen". www.abdn.ac.uk. 2011-06-29. Retrieved 2025-10-28.
  36. ^ "Honorary Degrees 2019". Trinity News and Events. 2019-12-06. Retrieved 2020-01-06.
  37. ^ "Michael Gazzaniga: A Life in Neuroscience". ggsc.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2025-04-11.
  38. ^ a b "Gazzaniga Receives APS Lifetime Achievement Award". APS Observer. 1 May 2015.
  39. ^ Gere, Cathy (2011-11-16). "Hemispheric Disturbances: On Michael Gazzaniga". ISSN 0027-8378. Retrieved 2025-02-28.
  40. ^ Kiante (2018-12-26). "Book Summary: Mind Matters by Michael Gazzaniga". Forces of Habit. Retrieved 2025-02-28.
  41. ^ "Nature's mind : the biological roots of thinking, emotions, sexuality, language, and intelligence / Michael S. Gazzaniga". Wellcome Collection. Retrieved 2025-02-28.
  42. ^ "Michael Gazzaniga: The Ethical Brain". press.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2025-02-28.
  43. ^ Gazzaniga, Michael (2008). Human: The Science Behind What Makes Us Unique. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-089288-3.
  44. ^ Cook, Gareth. "Neuroscience Challenges Old Ideas about Free Will". Scientific American. Retrieved 2025-02-28.
  45. ^ Landis, Theodor (2015). "Review: Tales from Both Sides of the Brain". Cerebrum: The Dana Forum on Brain Science. 2015: cer–13–15. ISSN 1524-6205. PMC 4938250. PMID 27408671.
  46. ^ Gazzaniga, Michael S., ed. (2009-09-18). The Cognitive Neurosciences. The MIT Press. doi:10.7551/mitpress/8029.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-262-30310-1.
  47. ^ "'Consciousness Instinct'". The Current. 2018-05-10. Retrieved 2025-02-28.
  48. ^ American Psychological Association, "Psychology's best," 2008, Vol 39, No. 9, http://www.apa.org/monitor/2008/10/honors.aspx
  49. ^ Gazzaniga, Michael S. (2011). Who's in charge? free will and the science of the brain. New York, NY: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0062096838.
  50. ^ VAN WAGENEN, WILLIAM P. (1940-10-01). "Surgical Division of Commissural Pathways in the Corpus Callosum". Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry. 44 (4): 740. doi:10.1001/archneurpsyc.1940.02280100042004. ISSN 0096-6754.
  51. ^ Akerlaitis, Andrew J.E. (1941). "Psychobiological studies following section of the corpus callosum: A preliminary report". American Journal of Psychiatry. 97 (5): 1147–1157.
  52. ^ Akelaitis, Andrew J. (1944). "A study of gnosis, praxis and language following section of the corpus callosum and anterior commissure". Journal of Neurosurgery. 1 (2): 94–102.
  53. ^ MYERS, RONALD E. (1956). "Function of Corpus Callosum in Interocular Transfer". Brain. 79 (2): 358–363. doi:10.1093/brain/79.2.358. ISSN 0006-8950. PMID 13364088.
  54. ^ https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1417892111 The split-brain: Rooting consciousness in biology Michael S. Gazzaniga
  55. ^ "Neuroscience For Kids - Visual Pathway". faculty.washington.edu. Retrieved 2025-10-29.
  56. ^ Hock, Roger R., "Forty Studies that Changed Psychology Explorations into the History of Psychological Research," Ch. 1 "Biology and Human Behavior", Reading 1: "One Brain or Two?" Copyright 2013, 2009, 2005 by Pearson Education Inc.
  57. ^ cogmonaut (2010-01-28). Split Brain Video. Retrieved 2025-10-29 – via YouTube.
  58. ^ Wolman, David (14 March 2012), "The Split Brain: A Tale of Two Halves", Nature 483: 260–263
  59. ^ (2011), "Interview with Michael Gazzaniga", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1224: 1–8
  60. ^ Gazzaniga, M.S.; Bogen, J.E.; Sperry, R.W. (1963). "Laterality effects in somesthesis following cerebral commissurotomy in man". Neuropsychologia. 1 (3): 209–215. doi:10.1016/0028-3932(63)90016-2. ISSN 0028-3932.
  61. ^ Wolman, David (2012). "A Tale of Two Halves". Nature. 483 (7389): 260–263 – via Shimadzu.
  62. ^ Volz, Lukas J.; Gazzaniga, Michael S. (2017-07-01). "Interaction in isolation: 50 years of insights from split-brain research". Brain. 140 (7): 2051–2060. doi:10.1093/brain/awx139. ISSN 0006-8950. PMID 29177496.
  63. ^ Gazzaniga, M. S.; Bogen, J. E.; Sperry, R. W. (October 1962). "Some functional effects of sectioning the cerebral commissures in man*". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 48 (10): 1765–1769. doi:10.1073/pnas.48.10.1765. PMC 221037. PMID 13946939.
  64. ^ Gazzaniga, Michael S. (23 December 2014). "The split-brain: rooting consciousness in biology". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (51): 18093–18094. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11118093G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1417892111. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 4280607. PMID 25538285.
  65. ^ Shen, Helen H. (23 December 2014). "Inner workings: Discovering the split mind". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (51): 18097. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11118097S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1422335112. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 4280611. PMID 25538286.
  66. ^ PsychologicalScience (2015-07-29). APS Award Address: Lessons Learned From Split-Brain Research. Retrieved 2025-10-30 – via YouTube.
  67. ^ "Gnosis". neuronup.us. Retrieved 2025-10-30.
  68. ^ Gazzaniga, Michael S. (2000-07-01). "Cerebral specialization and interhemispheric communication: Does the corpus callosum enable the human condition?". Brain. 123 (7): 1293–1326. doi:10.1093/brain/123.7.1293. ISSN 0006-8950. PMID 10869045.
  69. ^ GAZZANIGA, M. S.; SPERRY, R. W. (1967). "Language After Section of the Cerebral Commissures". Brain. 90 (1): 131–148. doi:10.1093/brain/90.1.131. ISSN 0006-8950. PMID 6023071.
  70. ^ a b Gazzaniga, Michael S.; LeDoux, Joseph E. (1978). The Integrated Mind. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-2206-9. ISBN 978-1-4899-2208-3.
  71. ^ Corballis, Paul M. (2003). "Visuospatial processing and the right-hemisphere interpreter". Brain and Cognition. 53 (2): 171–176. doi:10.1016/s0278-2626(03)00103-9. ISSN 0278-2626. PMID 14607141.
  72. ^ Turk, David J.; Heatherton, Todd F.; Kelley, William M.; Funnell, Margaret G.; Gazzaniga, Michael S.; Macrae, C. Neil (2002-08-19). "Mike or me? Self-recognition in a split-brain patient". Nature Neuroscience. 5 (9): 841–842. doi:10.1038/nn907. ISSN 1097-6256. PMID 12195428.
  73. ^ Mangun, G. R.; Luck, S. J.; Plager, R.; Loftus, W.; Hillyard, S. A.; Handy, T.; Clark, V. P.; Gazzaniga, M. S. (1994). "Monitoring the Visual World: Hemispheric Asymmetries and Subcortical Processes in Attention". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 6 (3): 267–275. doi:10.1162/jocn.1994.6.3.267. ISSN 0898-929X. PMID 23964976.
  74. ^ Miller, Michael B.; Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter; Young, Liane; King, Danielle; Paggi, Aldo; Fabri, Mara; Polonara, Gabriele; Gazzaniga, Michael S. (June 2010). "Abnormal moral reasoning in complete and partial callosotomy patients". Neuropsychologia. 48 (7): 2215–2220. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.02.021. ISSN 0028-3932. PMC 2876192. PMID 20188113.
  75. ^ WILSON, DONALD H.; REEVES, ALEXANDER; GAZZANIGA, MICHAEL; CULVER, CHARLES (1977). "Cerebral commissurotomy for control of intractable seizures". Neurology. 27 (8): 708–715. doi:10.1212/wnl.27.8.708. ISSN 0028-3878. PMID 560644.
  76. ^ GAZZANIGA, M. S.; LeDOUX, J. E.; WILSON, D. H. (December 1977). "Language, praxis, and the right hemisphere". Neurology. 27 (12): 1144–1147. doi:10.1212/wnl.27.12.1144. ISSN 0028-3878. PMID 563013.
  77. ^ https://www.sfn.org/-/media/SfN/Documents/TheHistoryofNeuroscience/Volume-7/c3.pdf The History of Neuroscience in Autobiography Volume 7
  78. ^ "Michael Saunders Gazzaniga | American Academy of Arts and Sciences". www.amacad.org. 25 February 2025.
  79. ^ "Michael S. Gazzaniga – NAS". www.nasonline.org.
  80. ^ "UC Santa Barbara Psychology Professor Michael Gazzaniga Awarded Prestigious German Research Prize for Lifetime Achievements in Science". The Current. 1 July 2008.
  81. ^ "Former President George H.W. Bush Among Nine Dartmouth Honorary Degree Recipients | Dartmouth". home.dartmouth.edu. 12 May 2011.
  82. ^ "Leading folk musician among those to be honoured by University of Aberdeen | News | The University of Aberdeen". www.abdn.ac.uk. 29 June 2011.
[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to Michael Gazzaniga.