Mi'kma'ki
Mi'kma'ki | |
|---|---|
| Pre-contact–1867 (as a State) | |
.svg) Flag | |
.svg)   Location of Mi'kma'ki (dark green) – in Turtle Island (light green & dark grey) | |
| Status | Confederated districts of Wabanaki |
| Capital | Mniku, Unama'kik 45°42′N 60°46′W / 45.700°N 60.767°W |
| Common languages | Mi'kmawi'simk |
| Demonym(s) | Mi'kmaq |
| Government | Sante' Mawio'mi / Mi'kmawey Mawio'mi |
| Kji Sagamaw | |
• 1550-1611 | Henri Membertou |
• 1792-1818 | Francis Peck |
• 1818-1842 | Michael Tooma |
• 1842-1869 | Frank Tooma Jr. |
• 1869-1887 | John Denny |
• 1918-1964 | Gabriel Sylliboy |
• 1964-1991 | Donald Marshall Sr. |
• 1991-2017 | Benjamin Sylliboy |
• 2019-present | Norman Sylliboy |
| Sagamaq | |
| Putu's | |
| History | |
• Established | Pre-contact |
• Contact with John Cabot[1] | 1497 |
• Exclusion from the Treaty of Utrecht | 1713 |
• First treaty with Great Britain after the Anglo–Wabanaki War | 1725 |
• Indian Act, 1876 | 1867 (as a State) |
| Population | |
• pre-1500 | 35,000−75,000[2] |
• 1620 | 4,000[3] |
• 1750 | 2,500[3] |
• 1901 | >3,308[4] |
• 2021 | 70,640[5] |
| Currency | Wabanaki Wampum |
| Today part of | Canada |
| ni'kmaq / l'nuk "my friends" / "people" | |
|---|---|
| Person | Mi'kmaw (L'nu) |
| People | Mi'kmaq (Lnu'k) |
| Language | Mi'kmawi'simk |
| Country | Mi'kma'ki Wapna'ki |
Mi'kma'ki, also spelled Mi'gma'gi, is composed of the traditional and current territories, or country, of the Mi'kmaq people, located in Wabanakia, or the Dawnland region, along the east coast of Turtle Island (North America). Protected by the Peace and Friendship Treaties signed with the British Crown, the territories of Mi'kma'ki overlap with the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and eastern Quebec, as well as parts of the U.S. state of Maine.[6]
The Mi'kmaw homeland is sub-divided into seven geographical and traditional districts with Taqamkuk being separately represented as an eighth district, formerly joined with Unama'ki.[7][8] Today, governance over the Mi'kmaw Nation is delegated to a number of First Nations, such as Eskasoni and Potlotek First Nations, the latter of which is home to Mniku, the traditional capital—or fire—of the Mi'kmaw country.[9][10] Historically, and to this day, the various Mi'kmaw communities were governed by a centralized council, the Sante' (or Mi'kmawey) Mawio'mi, composed of district chiefs (Saqamaq), a women's council (Saqama'sgw), wampum keepers (Putu's), and headed by a Grand Chief, or Kji Sagamaw, who is today Norman Sylliboy.[8][11]
Etymology
[edit]The name "Mi'kma'ki" is composed of two elements: The first makes reference to the Mi'kmaw Nation, whose name comes from the Mi'kmawi'simk word ni’kmaq meaning "my kin-friends".[12] The second element comes from the Algonquian word for "land"—*axkyi in Proto-Algonquian[13]—which can be seen in the name of neighbouring countries like Ndakinna, Nitaskinan, Nitassinan, and Anishinaabewaki, as well as in the name for the Dawnland region, Wapna'ki.
Alongside "Mi'kma'ki", there are additional ways to describe the Mi'kmaw homeland. Both "Mi'kmaw homeland"[6] and "Mi'kmaw Country"[14] use the adjectival and singular form of "Mi'kmaq".[15] Within the language, one can also say gm'tginu, as in the example sentence from the Mi'gmaq/Mi'kmaq Online Talking Dictionary: Gm'tginu, mnaq ignmuetug aq mnaq naqtmug! meaning "Our territory, we've never given it away and we've never left it!"[16]
History
[edit]Stretching back into deep history, the earliest stories of the Mi'kmaq go back to the time of Glooscap, a cultural hero and first human in Wabanaki mythology.[17][18] Big in size and power, Mi'kmaw legend says that when Glooscap finished painting the splendour of the world, he dipped his brush into a blend of all the colours and created Epekwitk—his favourite island—which would be his pillow and Enmigtaqamu'g as his bed as he slept.[19]
Mi'kmaw oral history recalls a time when the world was covered in water. It was then that the being Sebanees, arriving in kjiktu’lnu (“our great boat”), landed on the shores of Epekwitk. The boat, made of ice, carried all the animals and fish his family would need for survival, and it is said that Epekwitk's unique land formation was a result of the melting of the ice boat.[20] Archeaological evidence, such as shell middens and campsite remains, corroborate Mi'kmaw stories which indicate an ancient presence in Mi'kma'ki, with dates ranging from 5,000 to 12,000 years ago.[21][22] Prior to European colonization of the Americas, Mi'kmaq engaged in varied relations with neighbouring nations, such as the Wolastoqiyik (Maliseet), Passamaquoddy, and Abenaki, with whom they formed the Wabanaki Confederacy in Dawnland.
Following European contact, Mi'kma'ki was colonized by the French as Acadia and the British in modern Nova Scotia, who made competing claims for the land. Siding with the French, the Mi'kmaq fought alongside other Wabanaki warriors during the repeated wars between France and Britain in North America in the 17th and 18th centuries, between 1688 and 1763. These European powers divided Mi'kma'ki in the treaties of Utrecht (1715) and Paris (1763). After the latter, when France ceded its territories east of the Mississippi River to Britain, the British claimed Mi'kma'ki as their possession by conquest. The defeated Mi'kmaq signed the Peace and Friendship Treaties to end hostilities and encourage cooperation between the Wabanaki nations and the British. They wanted to ensure the survival of the Mi'kmaw people, whose numbers had dwindled to a few thousand from disease, starvation, and warfare.
The power held within Mi'kma'ki faded further after the Confederation of Canada in 1867 united the colonies, establishing four provinces. The Dominion of Canada passed the Indian Act in 1876, which resulted in the loss of autonomous governance among the First Nations. Whilst some analysts have advanced legal arguments that the Peace and Friendship treaties legitimized the takeover of the land by Britain, the Mi'kmaq maintain that they have never conceded sovereignty of their traditional lands.[23]
For more than 100 years, until 2020, the Sante' Mawio'mi (or Grand Council) was limited to functioning solely as a spiritual and dialogue forum. The Mi'kmaq and other First Nations were required to elect representatives for their federally-imposed band governments. In 2020, however, by agreement with the Government of Canada, the Grand Council was authorized to consult on behalf of the Mi'kmaw First Nations.
Governance
[edit]Traditionally each Mi'kmaq district had its own independent government. Those governments were composed of a chief (saqamaw; plural: saqamaq)[24] and a council. The council included the band chiefs, elders, and other important leaders, such as soldiers (sma'gnisg; sing.:sma'gnis).[25] The role of the councils was similar to those of any independent government and included the ability to make laws, establish a justice system, divide the common territory among the people for hunting and fishing, make war, and search for peace.
The overarching Grand Council (Sante' Mawio'mi) is composed of the keptinaq (captains / district chiefs, or saqamaq) as well as elders, putu's (historians reading the wampum belts), and a women's council (Saqama'sgw).[2] The Sante' Mawio'mi, also called the Mi'kmawey Mawio'mi, was headed by a Kji Sagamaw, or Grand Chief, who was one of the district chiefs, generally the Unama'kik chief, with hereditary succession. Today, the Kji Sagamaw is Norman Sylliboy. The seat of the Grand Council was generally on Unamaꞌkik at Mniku, and it still functions as the capital today in the Potlotek reserve.[26] In co-ordination with the Sante' Mawio'mi, administrative governance over Mi'kma'ki is currently relegated to the thirty First Nations governments.
Districts
[edit]Mi'kma'ki hosts eight administrative divisions called districts, each headed by a keptinaq, or district chief. The eight districts are the following (names are spelled in the Francis-Smith orthography, followed by the Listuguj orthography in parens):
Law
[edit]The Mi'kmaw legal system is called Netukulimk. It is best defined as "the use of the natural bounty provided by the Creator for the self-support and well-being of the individual and the community. A foundation of Netukulimk is achieving adequate standards of community nutrition and economic well-being without jeopardizing the integrity, diversity, or productivity of our environment."[27] Within the conceptual framework of Netukulimk, Mi'kmaw law functions as the foundation of sustaining Mi'kmaw families, communities, and society.[28] This mindset understands the whole of life to be interconnected, describing the rights and responsibilities of the Mi’kmaq with their families, communities, nation, and eco-system.[29]
Currently, Mi'kma'ki is subject to both Canadian law—with its foundations in the English common law system—and Netukulimk. Despite the terms of the Peace and Friendship Treaties outlining a model of co-existence,[30][31] Anglo-Canadian laws increasingly superseded Mi'kmaw law, especially after the passing of the Indian Act and the imposition of Canadian Aboriginal law. Today, Mi'kmaq are working with federal and provincial governments, as well as other organizations and groups, in order to restore the role and place of Netukulimk within Mi'kma'ki. One method of doing so is through a process coined by Elder Albert Marshall called "two-eyed seeing" or etuaptmumk.[32] Etuaptmumk is a concept that stresses the importance of balancing both Mi'kmaw and Canadian worldviews, laws, and wisdom.[32]
Geography
[edit]Mi'kmaw Country is located on the East coast of Turtle Island (North America) where it is surrounded by several bodies of water: the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the Gulf of Maine to the south, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the north. Between the districts of Siknikt, Sipekni'katik, and Kespukwitk lies the bay Bakudabakek; Cabot Strait separates the islands of Unama'ki and Ktaqamkuk, with the Strait of Belle Isle separating the latter from the mainland. The continental shelf off Ktaqamkuk is known as the Grand Banks, and it (along with the coast off of Enmigtaqamu'g—the mainland districts of Eskikewa'kik, Sipekni'katik, and Kespukwitk)[33] is where the cold Labrador Current and the warm Gulf Stream meet, making the area not only one of the richest fishing grounds in the world, but also one of the foggiest areas. Today, Mi'kma'ki is better known as Eastern or Atlantic Canada.
Climate
[edit]Much of Mi'kma'ki is considered to be a humid continental climate, kept moderate by the ocean, with elevated and northerly regions classified as a subarctic climate. Coastal regions—notably Enmigtaqamu'g, Unama'ki, and Ktaqamkuk—are often subject to coastal fog. The country also faces yearly cyclonic storms referred to as nor'easters.
| Location | July (°C) | July (°F) | January (°C) | January (°F) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Petitcodiac | 24/13 | 76/55 | −3/−14 | 25/7 |
| Miramichi | 25/13 | 77/54 | −5/−16 | 23/2 |
| Kjipuktuk | 23/14 | 73/58 | 0/−8 | 32/17 |
| Chéticamp | 24/14 | 74/57 | 8/0 | 46/32 |
| Keespongwitk | 21/12 | 69/55 | 1/−7 | 33/19 |
| St. John's | 20/11 | 68/52 | −1/−9 | 30/16 |
| Gander | 21/11 | 71/51 | −3/−12 | 26/11 |
See also
[edit]
References
[edit]- ^ "Mi'kmaw Time Line". Cape Breton University. Retrieved 26 September 2017.
- ^ a b McMillan, Leslie Jane (December 1996). Miꞌkmawey Mawioꞌmi: Changing Roles of the Miꞌkmaq Grand Council From the Early Seventeenth Century to the Present (PDF) (Master of Arts thesis). Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada: Dalhousie University. p. 219. Retrieved 26 September 2017.
- ^ a b Baird, Craig (23 September 2020). "The Mi'kmaq War". Canadian History Ehx. Retrieved 29 September 2025.
- ^ Walls, Martha Elizabeth (2014). No need of a chief for this band: The Maritime Mi'kmaq and Federal Electoral Legislation, 1899-1951 (PDF). Vancouver: UBC Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-7748-1789-9. Retrieved 29 September 2025.
- ^ Harold Franklin, McGee Jr (6 February 2024). "Miꞌkmaq". Historica Canadian. Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ a b "Historical Overview". Cape Breton University. Cape Breton University. Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ "Map of the Districts of Mi'kma'ki (Kjipuktuk aq Mi'kma'ki)". Parks Canada. Government of Canada. Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ a b Mikmaq Grand Council (1984). Barsh, Russel L.; Henderson, Sakey; Francis, Bernie (eds.). Mi’kmaw Grand Council State Papers (Foreign Affairs) 1977-1984 (Report). Sante' Mawio'mi. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 September 2025. Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ Nicholas, Crystal; Doucette, Noelle; Basque, Diane; Doucette, Charles; Paul, Tahirih; Greencorn, Charmaine (2019). Lieutenant Governor Community Spirit Award Nomination (PDF) (Report). Potlotek First Nation. Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ "Home". Potlotek. Potlotek First Nation. Archived from the original on 13 August 2025.
- ^ Ayers, Tom (1 August 2019). "Mi'kmaq select Norman Sylliboy of Eskasoni as new grand chief". CBC News Canada.
- ^ "Mi'kmaq\Acadie Ties". Acadie 300 Prince Edward Island 1720–2020. Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ "axkyi". Proto Algonquian Dictionary. Algonquian Dictionaries Project. Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ Muin'iskw (Jean); Crowfeather (Dan). "Mi'kmaw History - Post-Contact Timeline". Mikmaw Spirit. Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ "The use of the terms Mi'kmaq and Mi'kmaw". Issuu. Acadia University. Retrieved 14 July 2025.
- ^ "gm'tginu". Mi'gmaq/Mi'kmaq Online Talking Dictionary. Pacifique Dictionary Manuscripts project. Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ "Glooscap". New Brunswick Literary Encyclopedia. Tony Tremblay. Retrieved 26 September 2025.
- ^ Augustine, Stephen. The Mi’kmaq Creation Story (as told by Stephen Augustine) (PDF). Education and Early Childhood Development (Report). Government of Nova Scotia. Retrieved 26 September 2025.
- ^ Carpenter, Carole H. (4 March 2015). "Glooscap". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Retrieved 26 September 2025.
- ^ Varis, David D. (2024). "Chapter 5: Mi'kmaq Historians ~ Mi'kmaq Social Values and Economy ~Treaties ~ Royal Proclamation Act of 1763 ~ Indian Act of 1876". University of Prince Edward Island. Indigenous Teachings of Turtle Island.
- ^ Keenlyside, David L. (1999). "Glimpses of Atlantic Canada's Past". Revista de Arqueología Americana (16): 58. ISSN 0188-3631.
- ^ Treaties of Peace and Friendship (PDF) (Report). L'nuey. 2020. Retrieved 26 September 2025.
- ^ Paul 2000, p. 160.
- ^ "saqamaw". Mi'gmaq/Mi'kmaq Online Talking Dictionary. Retrieved 14 July 2025.
- ^ Gallant, David Joseph. "Mi'kmaq". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Retrieved 29 September 2025.
- ^ "Miꞌkmaq". Intercontinental Cry. Retrieved 2 December 2016.
- ^ "Netukulimk". UINR. Unama’ki Institute of Natural Resources. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
- ^ Baxter, Joan. "What "netukulimk" means and how it applies to the moderate livelihood fishery". Halifax Examiner. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
- ^ "Law". Tepi'ketuek Mi'kmaw Archives. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
- ^ "What you should know about the Peace and Friendship Treaties". CBC News. 1 October 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ Wallace, Sarah Isabel (17 February 2023). "Peace and Friendship Treaties". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ a b The Concepts of Netukulimk and Two-Eyed Seeing (PDF) (Report). L'nuey. Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ "Enmigtaqamu'g". Mi'gmaq/Mi'kmaq Online Talking Dictionary. Pacifique Dictionary Manuscripts project. Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ "Canadian Climate Normals". Environment and Climate Change Canada. 11 June 2019. Archived from the original on 27 February 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2015.
- ^ "National Climate Data and Information Archive". Environment Canada. Archived from the original on 2013-07-09. Retrieved 2010-09-02.
- Paul, Daniel N. (2000). We Were Not The Savages: A Mi'kmaq Perspective on the Collision Between European and Native American Civilizations. Fernwood Publishing. ISBN 9781552660393.
