Mazuku

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Mazuku forming in a low morphological depression on the foothills of Mt. Amiata, Italy, where CO2-rich fog accumulates in a ditch

Mazuku (Swahili for "evil winds") are pockets of dry, cold carbon dioxide-rich gases released from vents or fissures in volcanically and tectonically active areas, mixed with dispersed atmospheric air and accumulating in typically low-lying areas.[1][2][3] Since carbon dioxide (CO2) is ~1.5[4] times heavier than air, it tends to flow downhill, hugging the ground like a low fog and gathering in enclosed spaces with poor ventilation—such as lava tubes, ditches, depressions, caves, and house basements—or in the stratified water layers of meromictic lakes if a water column exists.[5][6][7] In high concentrations (≥ 1% by volume), they can pose a deadly risk to both humans and animals in the surrounding area because they are undetectable by olfactory or visual senses in most conditions.[1][3]

Mazuku primarily occur on the northern shores of Lake Kivu to either side of the twin towns of Goma (Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Gisenyi (Rwanda), where local communities use this term in their vernacular (Kinyabwisha language) to describe the dangerous gases.[4] They believe mazuku occur in cursed locations where invisible forces roam, silently killing people in the night while they sleep.[8][9] In many places where mazuku occur, CO2 levels fall during daytime but can rise to significantly dangerous concentration levels of about 90% at night, early mornings, or evening hours, posing a great threat.[4][8] This is because at night the atmospheric temperature drops and wind speeds significantly reduce.[8][10] These conditions slow the dispersal of these heavy gases into the atmosphere, allowing them to accumulate in lower-lying areas, such as valleys and depressions.[11][12][13]

Geological setting and occurrence

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Map of the East African Rift System (EARS), spanning ~4,000 km and showing the Eastern and Western rift branches. The map highlights areas of tectonic activity, volcanic hazards, and CO2 gas releases, including mazuku emissions, particularly on the Virunga Volcanic Province (VVP) and the Rungwe Volcanic Province (RVP) (red squares)

The East African Rift System (EARS) is formed by the divergence of three ancient cratonic plates: the Somalian plate, the Nubian plate, and the Arabian plate, which are splitting apart due to the influence of a mantle plume beneath them.[14] The rift extends ~4,000 km, starting from the Afar triple junction in the northern Ethiopian Plateau and running southwards.[15] It is divided into two main segments: the volcanically active Eastern branch (~45 Ma), which passes through Djibouti, Eritrea, Kenya, and northeastern Tanzania; and the younger, seismically active Western branch (~5 and 8 Ma), that cuts through the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, southwestern Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, and Zimbabwe and terminates at the Okavango Delta in Botswana.[15][16] The rifting process is responsible for the tectonic and volcanic activity in East Africa, leading to the formation of deep rift lake basins, such as Lake Tanganyika, Lake Malawi, Lake Rukwa, Lake Albert, and Lake Kivu, as well as frequent natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and massive landslides, along with prolonged dry CO2-rich gas emissions like mazuku (toxic gas) releases.[17][18][1]

It has been observed that most mazukus are found along the Western branch of the EARS, particularly in areas of active volcanic and tectonic activity. These areas include:

Formation

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Geologically, mazuku are natural CO2 emissions linked to magmatically and tectonically active regions, such as young and active or dormant volcanic systems, active hydrothermal systems, and deep fault structures systems.[1][21][8] Isotopic signatures from helium and CO2 gas analyses confirm that the origin of mazuku is mainly magmatic, as opposed to thermal decomposition of organic matter.[2][3][12][22] These gases are temporarily trapped and stored in subsurface pockets, such as lava tubes formed during previous eruptions, and remain isolated from the rest of the surrounding hydrothermal system.[19][20] Over time, they are released following porous pathways and channeled to the surface through a network of extensional fissures, faults, or fractures.[1][3] Once at the surface, they accumulate in cavities or in low-lying areas (depressions) due to their densities and the influence of gravity.[1] In meromictic lakes such as Lake Kivu, Lake Nyos, and Lake Monoun, the CO2-rich gases remain trapped in the dense, cold, and anoxic stratified lower layers (monimolimnion), which do not mix with the O2-rich surface layers (mixolimnion) due to density discrepancies.[8][1]

In anoxic zones, methanogenic bacteria convert carbon dioxide (CO2) into methane (CH4) through a process called methanogenesis, whereby over time, both CO2 and CH4 accumulate under extremely high pressure, creating a potential future limnic eruption disaster.[8][23][24] However, CH4 is currently extracted economically in Lake Kivu through degassing, which reduces the risk of a dangerous limnic eruption while providing an energy source for power generation.[5][8] Mazuku can extend up to 100m in length and cover an area of up to 4,700m2, as seen in the mazuku of Bulengo Seminaire on the shores of Lake Kivu, DRC. It has been observed that there is a strong correlation between the occurrence and location of mazuku with the regional alignment of tectonic faults and fracture network.[1][4]

Geochemical composition and origin

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The geochemical composition of mazuku gases consists mainly of CO2 and a variable mixture of other atmospheric components, such as N2, O2, and argon (Ar), with smaller amounts of methane (CH4), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and water vapour.[1][4] In these gases, CO2 concentrations range between 12% and 99%, argon concentrations range from 0.01% to 0.85%, and CH4 concentrations range from 0.0002% to 0.002%.[19][20] Helium is also present in low concentrations, ranging between 0.0003% and 0.004%.[12][19]

The isotopic signature of He-Ar and CO2 systematics identify mazuku sources to be derived from both the mantle (magmatic sources) and the crust, with significant potential secondary modification processes such as magma mixing and solubility-driven degassing fractionation.[19][25] The dry gases are continuously released very slowly through a passive degassing mechanism from the earth's interior via vents, fractures, cracks, hot springs, fumaroles, and gas plumes, without the need or presence of an active volcanic eruption.[1][26]

Surface manifestations

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Patchy vegetation and bareland areas due to high CO2 flux in the soil around the lava front near Goma city (particularly affecting the areas surrounding refugee camps)

Areas with mazuku can be readily identified in the field through several distinctive characteristics and features, such as:

  • Peculiar types and species of vegetation that thrive in CO2-rich waters and gases, such as cyperus papyrus, fern, reeds, and grasses.[4][12]
  • Burnt-out vegetation and altered rocks due to high acidity levels associated with normally elevated CO2 concentrations (70–90v.%), resulting in patches of weathered bareland.[1][2][12]
  • Regions with ultrahigh CO2 concentrations, where the high CO2/O2 ratio can be perceived as a sensation of heat on human skin, a condition related to hypercapnia.[21][23] This includes tingling and burning sensations in the mouth, lips, eyes, and nose because of the acidic nature of CO2 reacting with surface moisture to form a weak carbonic acid that irritates these soft body parts.[27][28]
  • Systematic occurrences of dead animals—such as insects, rodents, and reptiles, alongside larger animals like cattle, dogs, and goats—indicate areas of high CO2 concentration.[1][2]
  • Bulging and swelling of the ground due to pressure caused by CO2 accumulation.[4][29]

These characteristics collectively aid in the identification of mazuku regions in the field.[21][30]

Factors affecting CO2 levels in mazuku

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A well drilled through a pressurized gas pocket triggered a series of CO2 blowouts along a fault line.

CO2 levels in mazuku areas are affected and influenced by a combination of various factors.

Geological factors

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  • Increased volcanic and seismic activities: CO2 concentration levels may increase proportionally with volcanic and seismic activities (e.g. earthquakes), which can produce more permeable fractures in the earth's crust, allowing more CO2 to escape from underground and forming new degassing zones.[31]

Anthropogenic activities

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  • Unauthorized well drilling: For instance, at Colli Albali volcano in Italy, a well was dug through a pressurized gas pocket, causing it to explode. This created a low-pressure zone leading to more CO2 gas dispersion in the area and resulted in three more gas blowouts along a continuous fault line.[29]
  • Tarmac roads construction: Tarmac roads and concrete surfaces can seal natural gas conduits, blocking the natural flow of gas and leading to its accumulation.[4] As trapped gases build up pressure, they can bulge and swell the ground, and release explosively (gas blowout) when they eventually escape. This can cause a road collapse or other infrastructure damage.[29]
  • Drilling of pit latrines: A man died from asphyxiation near the foothills of Ngozi volcanic crater, in the Rungwe Volcanic Province in Tanzania, while digging a 6m deep pit latrine. This was likely caused by the accumulation of hazardous gases in the hole after the gas pockets were mechanically disturbed. CO2 continuously degasses in the area to date, leading to more deaths of birds, cows, and rodents due to the toxic gas buildup.[citation needed]

Meteorological parameters

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  • Pressure: Pressure variations in the atmosphere have an inverse relationship with CO2 emissions from the soil; i.e. when the atmospheric pressure drops the CO2 emissions are high, but when pressure rises the CO2 emissions are lower.[11][29]
  • Wind speed: Low wind speed decreases the chance of CO2 dispersion to the atmosphere and allows heavy gases to accumulate in low-lying areas like valleys and depressions.[7][13][10]
  • Soil moisture content and season: During heavy winter rains, subsurface soil voids are totally filled with water, into which dissolve a significant amount of CO2. In contrast, when the soil is dry during summer, these voids remain empty and can accumulate large amounts of degassed CO2, which can escape and fill in low-lying areas, posing great health risks.[7][32]
  • Time of day: At night, with no solar radiation and reduced solar intensity, atmospheric temperatures drop and wind speeds decrease significantly.[13] These conditions slow the dispersal of heavy gases, causing them to accumulate in low-lying areas.[33] During the day, sunlight heats the air, creating low pressure that allows CO2 emissions to rise and disperse, reducing the risk of dangerous concentration levels.[4][10]

CO2 exposure health effects and international guideline limits

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The health hazards linked to both short-term and long-term exposure of lethal doses of CO2 in mazuku are outlined in the table below, along with permissible exposure limits (PELs) for CO2 to promote safety in workplaces and for residents near active volcanic areas. These limits specify safe exposure durations at various concentrations to help prevent health risks over time.

CO2 concentration % (mixed with air) Short term exposure effects Long term exposure effects Average time of exposure
0–1.5% Mostly unnoticed by olfactory or visual senses[4] More noticeable conditions such as shortness of breath, lightheadedness, and dizziness 8 hours maximum exposure
1.5–6% Difficulty in breathing, increased heart rate, dyspnoea (shortness of breath)[4] Tingling sensations in lips, eyes, and nose because of the acidic nature of CO2, which reacts with surface moisture to form a weak carbonic acid that irritates these soft body parts[27][28] 15 minutes maximum exposure
6–10% Dizziness, buzzing sound in ears, lightheadedness, muscular and joint weakness, drowsiness, headaches, sweating, shortness of breath, low mood and mental distress, fainting, increased heart rate[33] Dizziness and loss of consciousness[34] Tolerable within a span of several minutes
11–15% Severe abrupt muscle contractions, caused because body cells lack enough oxygen for respiration and subsequently become unconscious within few seconds.[35] Severe muscle cramps and loss of consciousness[28] Death in less than a minute
˃ 25% Intolerable amount of CO2 for full functioning of the human body. Generally a victim suffers convulsions, coma, and finally death.[33] Convulsions, coma, and death[35] Death in less than a minute

Case studies

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Mazuku occur in various parts of the world where volcanic or geologically active regions release CO2-rich gases. These gases accumulate in low-lying areas, valleys, or confined spaces or in the stratified water layers of meromictic lakes, creating hazardous conditions and deadly asphyxiation zones for humans, wildlife, and plants. The following are case studies.

Lake Monoun

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Lake Monoun is a volcanic crater lake situated in the Oku Volcanic Field, which is part of the Cameroon Volcanic Line. It was formed when a lava flow created a natural barrier.[34][36] In 1984, the lake experienced a deadly gas exsolution, triggering a violent limnic eruption that killed 37 people.[1][36] The primary source of the gas was volcanic CO2 emissions, confirmed by carbon isotope signatures, which had accumulated in the lake's stratified waters over time, leading to increased pressure.[3][36] Seismic activity and an underwater landslide were responsible for the disturbance of the lake's stratification, releasing the trapped CO2 violently and causing a very dangerous gas outburst.[36][23]

Lake Nyos

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Cow suffocated and killed by CO2 during Lake Nyos limnic eruption in Cameroon, 1986

A similar scenario occurred two years later in 1986 at Lake Nyos, another crater lake in Cameroon, often referred to as a "killer lake".[23][37] The lake experienced a catastrophic limnic eruption (also known as a "lake overturn"; a rare phenomenon where dissolved volcanic gases are released from the stratified bottom layers of lakes after a mechanical disturbance)[8] that resulted in the sudden release of a massive amount of CO2, leading to deaths of 1,700 people and 300 cattle.[23][34]

Geologically, the crater lake sits over a network of active faults and lineaments and is being fed underneath by volatile-rich basaltic dikes.[23] These dikes release magmatic gases and volatiles like CO2 and H2O, which, upon their release at low pressure, likely contributed to a phreatomagmatic explosive eruption that formed a diatreme[38] beneath the lake and a maar depression on the surface.[23]

Normally, a mazuku involves dry CO2 gas seeping through fissures and accumulating in low-lying areas before dispersing into the atmosphere.[1] However, when gas columns are obstructed by rock strata, such as thick pyroclastic deposits or stratified lake water (meromictic lakes), the gases remain trapped or dissolved in the lake waters, respectively.[5][8] The latter case occurred at Lake Nyos, where CO2-rich gas significantly accumulated in the water under extreme pressure.[23]

It is believed that a landslide triggered the exsolution of the dissolved gases, which caused a limnic eruption.[23] As a result, a massive CO2 cloud (about 98% CO2 by volume) rose from the lake's floor (208m deep), spread over and down the valleys, engulfed the nearby villages, and killed everything by asphyxiation.[23][8]

Mammoth Mountain

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Mammoth Mountain, a dormant volcano in the Sierra Nevada region of California, United States, is underlaid by a shallow dacitic dome that releases cold and dry CO2-rich gases (98v% CO2) through fumarole vents and fractures located on the flanks of the mountain.[11][39][40] The gas fluxes were estimated at a rate of ~1,200 tonnes per day, comparable to gas fluxes observed at the summit craters of Kīlauea in Hawaii, Mount Etna in Italy, and Mount St. Helens in Washington.[41] The CO2 originates from deeper magmatic sources (as evidenced from He-CO2 isotopic signature) at about 10 km below the surface, and travels through permeable networks of fractures and faults.[40][34] The CO2-rich gases accumulate in the soil layers at depths between 0.6–1m, in closed subsurface cavities, and in snow caves, suggesting an ongoing active magmatic activity beneath the mountain.[11]

Dead trees at Mammoth Mountain in California due to increased CO2 levels in the soil, leading to toxic acidity and effects on plant health

One visible manifestation of this toxic degassing is the large-scale mortality of coniferous trees, covering an area of up to 100 hectares on the mountain's flanks.[39][41] The accumulation of CO2 in closed depressions and subsurface soil layers exposes tree roots to toxic gases, leading to widespread tree death.[28][40] In addition to CO2 poisoning, the trees are affected by highly altered and acidic soils.[41] The region also experiences frequent earthquakes, often with up to magnitudes of 6 on the Richter scale.[40][41] These seismic events, combined with the mountain's bulging and exhumation, fracture the surface and allow high-pressure volatiles to escape, further releasing CO2 into the zone.[41]

Mount Amiata

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Mt. Amiata is a dormant volcano located in Tuscany, central Italy, known for its significant emissions of dry and cold CO2-rich gases, which are primarily magmatic in origin.[42] The gases originate from the deep geothermal system beneath the volcano and pass through a permeable network of faults and fractures by passive mechanism degassing processes.[43][44] Although the area has not experienced recent volcanic eruptions, it remains geothermally active, with CO2 emissions contributing to environmental risks like soil acidification and potential CO2 build-up in low-lying areas, posing hazards to local wildlife and humans.[42] The region is also notable for its significance in geothermal energy production, and gas emissions are closely monitored to assess both volcanic hazards and energy sustainability.[43]

Mount Sinila

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Dry CO2 emissions observed on the Diëng Plateau, Indonesia, highlight volcanic activity and the potential hazards of gas releases.

Mt. Sinila is a volcanic mountain located on the Diëng Plateau in Indonesia. In 1979 it experienced a tragic phreatic eruption disaster when a mixture of steam, lahar, and toxic gases was released from the open cracks and fissures located near the crater and gushed down the valley, asphyxiating insects, rodents, goats, dogs, and cows, as well as claiming the lives of 172 people.[citation needed] Before the eruption, the area experienced a series of earthquakes that reactivated ancient fractures over the span of a few hours.[32] After a few hours during the main course of eruption, dry gas was emitted from a new 1,000m-long fissure that had emerged on the western flank of the volcano near Sumur crater.[45] Gas analysis revealed that the dry gas was CO2-rich from magmatic sources, with concentrations reaching up to 99% by volume.[45][32] Since CO2 is heavier than air, it flowed down the valley, displacing oxygen and hugging the ground like fog.[46][47] All victims were found dead in a linear path of gas flow, likely caught them off guard as they slept, with the gas suffocating them simultaneously.[48][45][32]

Effects

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Diffuse CO2 gas emissions forming mazuku zones in Virunga National Park (DRC) have killed wild animals, including elephants, hyenas, and baboons.

Depending on their gas composition and concentration, mazuku can cause various effects on flora and fauna.[12] Massive clouds of CO2, such as those released from lakes in the 1980s, can cause widespread devastation of human and wildlife populations.[2] Local vegetation is typically not very strongly affected.[36][23] If the concentration of CO2 is high enough and maintained in a prolonged outgassing event, however, even vegetation can be affected by the mazuku, as is the case on Mammoth Mountain, where deforestation has occurred, as well as CO2 poisonings, including the deaths of two skiers, one in 1995 and one in 1998.[41][40][28]

In some cases, mazuku are large enough to cause localized flora and fauna extinction events that are documented in the fossil record.[45] For example, sediment core radiocarbon dating records from Lake Kivu have shown a sequence of repeated and regular massive lake overturn events approximately every 800–1000 years that were caused by methane explosions and tsunamis due to accumulation of magmatic CO2.[46]

If mazuku occurs underneath lakes, it can lead to changes in water chemistry, creating meromictic lakes that are dangerous for aquatic life.[8] For example, the buildup of CO2 in Lake Kivu, Lake Nyos, and Lake Monoun caused stratification and oxygen depletion, affecting fish and other organisms living in the water.[1][36]

Summary

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Country Volcanic structure Year occurred Volcano state CO2 release events Measured CO2 conc. Environmental effects Casualties
1 DRC and Rwanda Virunga Volcanic Province 1900s to present Active Dry CO2 degassing 90% Acidic soil, death of animals due to ˃ 500,000 ppm of CO2 in the soil ~13 deaths per year
2 DRC Virunga Volcanic Province 1900s to present Active Diffuse outgassing of CO2 into the lake water ˃ 25% Water chemistry alteration, habitat disruption, loss of biodiversity Dizziness and convulsions lead to 2 swimmers drowning; potential future catastrophic limnic eruption
3 Cameroon[47] Cameroon Volcanic Line
  • Lake Monoun
 1984 Active Limnic eruption 96.73% Water chemistry alteration, habitat disruption, loss of biodiversity 37 people died
4 Cameroon Cameroon Volcanic Line 1986 Active Limnic eruption 98% Water chemistry alteration, habitat disruption, loss of biodiversity 1,700 deaths
5 United States Mammoth Mountain[40][7][41][28] 1998 Dormant Dry diffuse CO2 through the soil 98% Acidic soil, barren land (~100 hectares in a tree-kill area and dead animals) A skier died from acute pulmonary edema in a snow cave with ~98% CO2
6 Indonesia Diëng Plateau 1979 Dormant Phreatic eruption 99% Tree kill zones due to acidic soils; dead reptiles and rodents 172 people died
7 Tanzania Rungwe Volcanic Province 2001, 2004 and 2022 Dormant Dry CO2 degassing 95% Tree kill zones due to acidic soils; dead reptiles and rodents 1 man died while digging a pit latrine; 2 men died when they fell into a ditch
8 Italy Vulcano Island[49][50][37] 1980 Active Diffuse CO2 on mountain flanks 50% Tree kill zones due to acidic soils; dead reptiles and rodents 2 children died from asphyxiation
9 Italy Lazio and Alban Hills[51][52] 2000 Dormant Dry diffuse CO2 through the soil 92.7% Tree kill zones due to acidic soils; dead reptiles and rodents 1 man died when he fell into an abandoned well
10 Italy Alban Hills[53][37] 2011 Dormant Dry diffuse CO2 through the soil 99% Cows and pets died from asyphixiation; gas blowouts, ground swells, and roads collapses 3 people died in an open spa
11 Japan Hakkoda[54][55][56][37] 1997 Dormant Dry diffuse CO2 through the soil into depressions 15–20% Bare land and a pattern of dead animals were observed 3 soldiers died after falling into a depression
12 Portugal Furnas, São Miguel, Azores[57] 1999 Active Dry diffuse CO2 through the soil 99% Tree kill zones due to acidic soils; dead reptiles and rodents 3 people died from asphyxiation in house cellars and a well

Hazard assessment and mitigation

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Hazard assessment

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Areas experiencing mazuku emissions face multiple forms of hazards due to their proximity to active volcanoes.

Continuous hazards

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These are long-lasting volcanic hazards that persist for extended periods of time, even without an active volcanic eruption.[1] For instance, in regions near active volcanoes, such as the Virunga Volcanic Province, people, livestock, and wildlife in low-lying areas are silently asphyxiated by mazuku gases.[4] The danger from mazuku remains constant, posing a long-term threat to communities living in these volcanic zones.

Long-term exposure to mazuku can lead to environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity.[45] Agricultural lands may be impacted by CO2 accumulation in subsurface layers of soils, creating toxic acidic soil and leading to crop failures and economic disruption.[41]

Latent hazards

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Latent hazards are dormant threats that require an external trigger, such as a mechanical disturbance, to become dangerous and deadly under specific conditions. For example, meromictic lakes like Lake Nyos, Lake Kivu, and Lake Monoun can contain enormous amounts of dissolved carbon dioxide (and sometimes methane) in their deep stratified layers (monimolimnion).[5][8][36] Under normal conditions, these gases remain trapped in the lower layers of the lake.[23] However, if triggered by an external mechanical disturbance such as volcanic activity, an earthquake, or a landslide, these gases can release explosively in a limnic eruption. This could lead to widespread asphyxiation and fires across the surrounding regions.[1][23]

Mazuku may also indicate deeper magmatic unrest, warning of further natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.[1]

Mitigation measures

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Due to the silent (colorless and odorless) and deadly nature of CO2 in volcanic active areas, authorities must be proactive and prepared to combat this natural hazard and reduce its hazardous effects. Some of the mitigation measures are:

On-ground CO2 detection sensors: Early warning systems can be installed in high-risk areas. For example, at Mt. Amiata in Italy, researchers employ soil CO2 flux sensors to measure diffuse CO2 emissions with a notable flux measurement of about 13,000 tons/day.[42]

Artificial siphoning at Lake Nyos safely releases CO2 from deep lake layers, preventing pressure buildup and reducing the risk of a limnic eruption

Volcano geoengineering technologies: Human-induced degassing technologies can be employed in meromictic lakes to prevent the sudden natural release of gases. For instance, at Lake Nyos, siphons were installed to lower gas pressure by extracting CO2-rich water from the lake's bottom saline layers.[5][58] This process enables the dissolved carbon dioxide to escape into the atmosphere as the water rises to the surface. By reducing the concentration of dissolved gases, this method decreases the risk of catastrophic limnic eruptions, like the one happened in 1986. The siphon system effectively promotes controlled gas exsolution, preventing dangerous pressure build-up.[58]

Land-use planning: Town planners can indicate buffer zones which are prone to mazuku and prevent settlements in these areas.

A hazard sign indicating high CO2 concentration at Mammoth Mountain in California, emphasizing danger and the need to take precaution when visiting these areas

Relocation and closing high CO2-concentrated areas: For essential community safety, there should be immediate evacuation plans and warning signs in hazardous places.[29]

Developing gas hazard and risk maps: Key CO2 data—such as soil gas concentrations, carbon isotopes (which help trace CO2 sources), and CO2 flux levels—should be collected in volcanic areas prone to mazuku.[4] Mapping these areas through gas concentration and flux measurements can greatly help during construction and settlement allocation decisions.[7][29]

Education and sensitization campaigns: There should be continued scientific research on CO2 emissions in volcanic active regions, including the creation and improvement of existing CO2 dispersion models on the causes and occurrence of mazuku.[59]

Mazuku's influence on climate

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Volcanic mountains such as Mount Etna in Italy, Kilauea in Hawaii, Nyiragongo and Nyamulagira in Congo, and their adjoining areas are significant sources of magma-derived gases, releasing massive amounts of CO2 both during eruptions and through continuous magma upwelling (passive degassing) in non-eruptive states through fumaroles, hot springs, and gas plumes.[26] For instance, during active eruptions, Mount Etna in Italy can emit up to 61,800 tons of CO2 per day. Even when not erupting, it is still passively degassing and it can emit around 137 tons of CO2 per day.[60][failed verification] The cycling of CO2 and other gases—such as sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, water vapor, and hydrogen chloride—is driven by magma convection, where degassed magma sinks, recharges with CO2 at depth, and rises again, ensuring a constant supply of volatile-rich magma, a process likely fueled by a mantle source beneath.[61][62]

This process contributes to global warming primarily through their large, continuous emissions of the greenhouse gas CO2.[63][64] Volcanoes release significant amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere during both their quiescence and high eruptive activity periods.[60] The continuous release and accumulation of CO2 (accounting for up to 10% of the global total budget) leads to an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.[63] This gas acts like a blanket, trapping heat that would otherwise be re-radiated into space, causing the heat to accumulate and, as a result, warming the Earth's surface. Although volcanic CO2 emissions are relatively small compared to human-caused emissions from burning fossil fuels, the persistent degassing of volcanoes like Mt. Etna still plays a role in the carbon cycle, indirectly contributing to climate change by increasing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere.[64][65]

See also

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References

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