Ground spider

Ground spiders Temporal range: Cretaceous–present PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N
Callilepis nocturna, a ground spider found in the Palearctic realm
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Arthropoda
Subphylum:	Chelicerata
Class:	Arachnida
Order:	Araneae
Infraorder:	Araneomorphae
Family:	Gnaphosidae Banks, 1892
Diversity
153 genera, 2583 species

Ground spiders comprise Gnaphosidae, the seventh largest spider family with over 2,000 described species in over 100 genera distributed worldwide. There are 105 species known to central Europe,^[1] and common genera include Gnaphosa, Drassodes, Micaria, Cesonia, Zelotes and many others. They are closely related to Clubionidae.^[2] At present, no ground spiders are known to be seriously venomous to humans.

Description

Generally, ground spiders are characterized by having barrel-shaped anterior spinnerets that are one spinneret diameter apart. The main exception to this rule is found in the ant-mimicking genus Micaria. Another characteristic is an indentation in the endites (paired mouthparts anterior and lateral to the labium, or lip). All ground spiders lack a prey-capture web and generally run prey down on the surface. They hunt at night and spend the day in a silken retreat.^[2]

The genitalia are diverse and are a good model for studying the evolution of genitalia because of their peculiar copulatory mechanism.^[3] The thick-walled egg sacs are guarded by the mother until the spiderlings hatch.^[2]

Hunting behavior

Ground spiders hunt by active foraging, chasing down and subduing individual prey items. They are adapted to hunting large and potentially dangerous prey, including other spiders, which they subdue by using their silk. When hunting, ground spiders produce thick, gluey silk from their enlarged spinnerets and attempt to use it to entangle their prey in swathing attacks, often applying their webbing to their prey's legs and mouths. By immobilizing potential prey in this manner, ground spiders can subdue proportionally large creatures while reducing risk of injury to themselves from their prey's attempts to fight back.^[4]

Genera

Main article: List of Gnaphosidae species

• 
  Asemesthes flavipes
• 
  Spinnerets of Herpyllus ecclesiasticus
• 
  Endites and labium (also fangs and sternum)

As of September 2025^[update], this family includes 153 genera:^[5]

• Afrodrassex Haddad & Booysen, 2022 – Africa
• Algarvezelotes Wunderlich, 2023 – Portugal
• Allomicythus Ono, 2009 – Asia
• Allozelotes Yin & Peng, 1998 – China
• Almafuerte Grismado & Carrión, 2017 – South America
• Amazoromus Brescovit & Höfer, 1994 – Brazil
• Ammoxenus Simon, 1893 – Africa
• Amusia Tullgren, 1910 – Africa
• Anagraphis Simon, 1893 – Europe, Asia, Africa
• Anagrina Berland, 1920 – Africa
• Aneplasa Tucker, 1923 – Africa
• Anzacia Dalmas, 1919 – Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, New Guinea
• Aphantaulax Simon, 1878 – Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia
• Apodrassodes Vellard, 1924 – Central and South America
• Apodrassus Chamberlin, 1916 – Peru
• Aponetius Kamura, 2020 – Japan
• Apopyllus Platnick & Shadab, 1984 – Central and South America, Caribbean
• Arauchemus Ott & Brescovit, 2012 – Brazil
• Asemesthes Simon, 1887 – Africa
• Asiabadus Roewer, 1961 – Central Asia
• Australoechemus Schmidt & Piepho, 1994 – Atlantic Islands
• Austrammo Platnick, 2002 – Australia
• Avstroneulanda Zakharov & Ovtsharenko, 2022 – Australia, New Guinea
• Barrowammo Platnick, 2002 – Australia
• Benoitodes Platnick, 1993 – St. Helena
• Berinda Roewer, 1928 – Mediterranean, Middle East. Introduced to Japan
• Berlandina Dalmas, 1922 – Europe, Asia, Africa
• Cabanadrassus Mello-Leitão, 1941 – Argentina
• Callilepis Westring, 1874 – Europe, Asia, North America
• Callipelis Zamani & Marusik, 2017 – Iran
• Camillina Berland, 1919 – Pantropical
• Canariognapha Wunderlich, 2011 – Canary Is.
• Ceryerda Simon, 1909 – Australia
• Cesonia Simon, 1893 – North America, Caribbean, Mediterranean
• Chatzakia Lissner & Bosmans, 2016 – Spain
• Civizelotes Senglet, 2012 – Europe, Asia, Atlantic Islands
• Cladothela Kishida, 1928 – East Asia
• Coillina Yin & Peng, 1998 – Asia
• Coreodrassus Paik, 1984 – Asia
• Cryptodrassus Miller, 1943 – Europe, Asia, North Africa
• Cryptoerithus Rainbow, 1915 – Australia
• Cubanopyllus Alayón & Platnick, 1993 – Cuba
• Dai Liu & Zhang, 2024 – China
• Diaphractus Purcell, 1907 – Africa
• Drassodes Westring, 1851 – Nearly cosmopolitan
• Drassodex Murphy, 2007 – Europe
• Drassyllus Chamberlin, 1922 – Holarctic
• Echemella Strand, 1906 – Africa
• Echemographis Caporiacco, 1955 – Venezuela
• Echemoides Mello-Leitão, 1938 – South America
• Echemus Simon, 1878 – Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia
• Eilica Keyserling, 1891 – Americas, Africa, Asia, Australia
• Encoptarthria Main, 1954 – Australia
• Epicharitus Rainbow, 1916 – Australia
• Fedotovia Charitonov, 1946 – Central Asia
• Gaviphosa Sankaran, 2021 – India
• Gertschosa Platnick & Shadab, 1981 – North America, Caribbean
• Gnaphosa Latreille, 1804 – Holarctic, Africa
• Haplodrassus Chamberlin, 1922 – Nearly cosmopolitan
• Herpyllus Hentz, 1832 – North America, South America, Asia
• Heser Tuneva, 2004 – Europe, Asia, Africa, North America
• Hitobia Kamura, 1992 – Asia
• Homoeothele Simon, 1908 – Australia
• Hongkongia Song & Zhu, 1998 – Asia, Africa
• Hotwheels Liu & Zhang, 2024 – China
• Hypodrassodes Dalmas, 1919 – Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia
• Ibala Fitzpatrick, 2009 – Africa
• Intruda Forster, 1979 – Australia. Introduced to New Zealand
• Iranotricha Zamani & Marusik, 2018 – Iran
• Kaitawa Forster, 1979 – New Zealand
• Kikongo Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020 – Africa
• Kishidaia Yaginuma, 1960 – Europe, Asia
• Kituba Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020 – D.R. Congo
• Ladissa Simon, 1907 – Africa, Asia
• Laronius Platnick & Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 – Asia
• Lasophorus Chatzaki, 2018 – Mediterranean
• Latica Silva, Guerrero, Bidegaray-Batista & Simó, 2020 – South America
• Latonigena Simon, 1893 – South America
• Leptodrassex Murphy, 2007 – Europe, Africa
• Leptodrassus Simon, 1878 – Europe, Africa, North America
• Leptopilos Levy, 2009 – Europe, Asia, Africa
• Litopyllus Chamberlin, 1922 – North America, Caribbean
• Macarophaeus Wunderlich, 2011 – Atlantic Islands
• Marinarozelotes Ponomarev, 2020 – Nearly cosmopolitan
• Marjanus Chatzaki, 2018 – Asia, Europe
• Marusik Lin & Li, 2023 – Vietnam
• Matua Forster, 1979 – New Zealand
• Megamyrmaekion Reuss, 1834 – Africa, Asia, Australia
• Meizhelan Lin & Li, 2023 – China
• Micaria Westring, 1851 – Nearly cosmopolitan
• Microdrassus Dalmas, 1919 – Seychelles
• Microsa Platnick & Shadab, 1977 – Caribbean
• Micythus Thorell, 1897 – Asia
• Minosia Dalmas, 1921 – Europe, Asia, Africa
• Minosiella Dalmas, 1921 – Europe, Asia, Africa
• Molycria Simon, 1887 – Australia
• Montebello Hogg, 1914 – Australia
• Myandra Simon, 1887 – Australia
• Nauhea Forster, 1979 – New Zealand
• Neodrassex Ott, 2012 – South America
• Nodocion Chamberlin, 1922 – North America
• Nomindra Platnick & Baehr, 2006 – Australia
• Nomisia Dalmas, 1921 – Europe, Asia, Africa
• Notiodrassus Bryant, 1935 – New Zealand
• Odontodrassus Jézéquel, 1965 – Asia, Africa, Pacific Islands
• Orodrassus Chamberlin, 1922 – North America
• Parabonna Mello-Leitão, 1947 – Brazil
• Parasyrisca Schenkel, 1963 – Holarctic
• Phaeocedus Simon, 1893 – Europe, Asia
• Platnickus Liu & Zhang, 2023 – China
• Poecilochroa Westring, 1874 – Nearly cosmopolitan
• Pseudodrassus Caporiacco, 1935 – Asia, Africa
• Pterotricha Kulczyński, 1903 – Europe, Asia, Africa
• Pterotrichina Dalmas, 1921 – North Africa, Asia
• Rastellus Platnick & Griffin, 1990 – Africa
• Sanitubius Kamura, 2001 – East Asia
• Scopoides Platnick, 1989 – North America
• Scotocesonia Caporiacco, 1947 – Guyana
• Scotognapha Dalmas, 1920 – Atlantic Islands
• Scotophaeus Simon, 1893 – Nearly cosmopolitan
• Sergiolus Simon, 1892 – Holarctic, Caribbean
• Sernokorba Kamura, 1992 – Europe, Asia
• Setaphis Simon, 1893 – Europe, Asia, Africa
• Shaitan Kovblyuk, Kastrygina & Marusik, 2013 – Europe, Asia
• Shiragaia Paik, 1992 – Korea
• Sidydrassus Esyunin & Tuneva, 2002 – Europe, Asia
• Smionia Dalmas, 1920 – Africa, Atlantic Islands
• Solitudes Lin & Li, 2020 – China
• Sosticus Chamberlin, 1922 – Holarctic
• Symphanodes Rainbow, 1916 – Australia
• Synaphosus Platnick & Shadab, 1980 – Nearly cosmopolitan
• Talanites Simon, 1893 – Europe, Asia, North America
• Talanitoides Levy, 2009 – Israel
• Titus O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1901 – Zimbabwe
• Trachyzelotes Lohmander, 1944 – Europe, Asia
• Trephopoda Tucker, 1923 – Africa
• Trichothyse Tucker, 1923 – Europe, Asia, Africa
• Turkozelotes Kovblyuk & Seyyar, 2009 – Europe, Asia, Africa
• Urozelotes Mello-Leitão, 1938 – Nearly cosmopolitan
• Verita Ramírez & Grismado, 2016 – Argentina
• Wesmaldra Platnick & Baehr, 2006 – Australia
• Wydundra Platnick & Baehr, 2006 – Australia, Asia
• Xerophaeus Purcell, 1907 – Africa
• Xizangiana Sherwood, Li & Zhang, 2022 – Asia
• Yoruba Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020 – Africa
• Yuqilin Lin & Li, 2023 – China
• Zagrotes Zamani, Chatzaki, Esyunin & Marusik, 2021 – Iran
• Zelanda Özdikmen, 2009 – New Zealand
• Zelominor Snazell & Murphy, 1997 – Europe, Africa
• Zelotes Gistel, 1848 – Nearly cosmopolitan
• Zelotibia Russell-Smith & Murphy, 2005 – Africa
• Zelowan Murphy & Russell-Smith, 2010 – Africa
• Zimiromus Banks, 1914 – Central and South America, Caribbean

See also

• List of Gnaphosidae species

References

1. Blick; et al. (2004). Checklist of the spiders of Central Europe. (Arachnida: Araneae) (PDF).
2. Nieuwenhuys, Ed (2000). "Spiders of NW-Europe". Retrieved 2007-01-03.
3. Azevedo; et al. (2018). "To complicate or to simplify? Phylogenetic tests of complexity trends and genital evolution in ground spiders (Araneae: Dionycha: Gnaphosidae)". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 184 (3): 673–694. doi:10.1093/zoolinnean/zly016.
4. Wolff; et al. (2017). "Hunting with sticky tape: functional shift in silk glands of araneophagous ground spiders (Gnaphosidae)". Journal of Experimental Biology. 220 (12): 2250–2259. doi:10.1242/jeb.154682. PMID 28615490.
5. "Family Gnaphosidae". World Spider Catalog. doi:10.24436/2. Retrieved 27 September 2025.

• Platnick, N.I. & Shadab, M.U. (1983): A revision of the American spiders of the genus Zelotes (Araneae, Gnaphosidae). Bulletin of the AMNH 174: 99-191. PDF (29Mb) - Abstract

External links

• Arachnology Home Pages: Araneae
• Platnick, N.I. 2003. World Spider Catalog
• Pictures of Herpyllus ecclesiastus (free for noncommercial use)
• AMNH: Key to some genera
• A video of Sergiolus, a ground spider in Texas