Draft:Tektas wreck

Historical Context

The Tektaş Burnu shipwreck stands as one of the most significant maritime archaeological discoveries of the late 20th century, not only for its well-preserved context but also for the rare window it offers into the economic, political, and social world of 5th-century BCE Ionia during the apex of Athenian maritime dominance. Discovered by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA) in September 1996, off a rugged, uninhabited stretch of Turkey’s Aegean shoreline southwest of Sigacik (ancient Teos) and directly east of Chios, this fifth-century BCE wreck is currently the only Classical Greek shipwreck to have been completely excavated—between 1999 and 2001—in Aegean waters.

This period in Greek history is often referred to as the “Golden Age” or apex of the Athenian empire, a time characterized by political expansion, flourishing commerce, and the ascendancy of Athens as the region’s preeminent naval and economic power. The existence of merchant vessels such as the one sunk at Tektaş Burnu demonstrates that despite overwhelming Athenian influence, regional and local trade networks persisted, particularly in the resilient Ionian cities like Erythrae and Chios. This ship, by the evidence of its cargo and originating amphora stamps, appears to have played a role in the movement of vital commodities—principally wine and pine tar—between Ionian and Aegean settlements. The preponderance of this locally produced and regionally circulated cargo, coupled with a relative scarcity of imported Attic fineware, suggests a robust local economy maintained alongside and under Athenian imperial hegemony.

The Ionians had, only a generation earlier, rebelled against Persian rule in what has come to be called the Ionian Revolt. In the later fifth century BCE, Athenian tribute lists and archaeological finds frequently point to the leveraging of maritime power to dominate commercial activities in the Aegean. However, the Tektaş Burnu wreck illustrates that local players remained active in commerce, adapting and thriving even as Athens expanded its reach. Amphorae clustering around the Black Sea, Ionian, and eastern Aegean coasts, together with the rare, stamped finds directly linking amphora production to Erythrae (modern Ildırı), fill a significant historiographical lacuna concerning local economic histories and amphora typologies in this period.

The region’s geographical and environmental particularities—most notably, strong seasonal northwesterly meltem winds driving treacherous cross-currents through the Straits of Chios—made for hazardous navigation but fertile ground for trade: cereal, wine, olive oil, tar, pottery, and livestock products moved routinely along these coasts. The Tektaş Burnu merchantman, carrying a modest but revealing cargo, highlights the continued vitality and autonomy of regional economies in the face of expanding Athenian imperial ambitions.

Vessel Specifications

Type and Construction Techniques

The Tektaş Burnu ship was a small to medium-sized Classical Greek merchant vessel, measuring approximately 10–12 meters in length with an estimated tonnage capable of carrying 6–7 tons of cargo. This made her significantly more modest than larger contemporary merchantmen, such as the 22-meter Alonnesos shipwreck but consistent with other coastal trading vessels documented from the Classical and Hellenistic periods. Comparative studies with other well-known wrecks, such as Kyrenia (c. 4th-century BCE), indicate similar construction techniques and function, if differing in size.

Construction Details and Wood Types

Recent studies of hull fragments and ship fasteners have revealed that Tektaş Burnu was constructed primarily using pine (Pinus sp.) planks and oak (Quercus sp.) framing—choices typical for seafaring vessels of the period given the availability, strength, and workability of these timbers. The planks were joined using shell-based techniques, particularly the mortise-and-tenon system, wherein wooden planks were edge-joined using oak or hardwood tenons pegged on each side, forming a strong, watertight hull. Frames were inserted after the hull was assembled and attached with large, double-clenched copper nails. Analysis indicates the use of high-copper-content fasteners (over 97% Cu), and nail lengths between 120 and 220 millimeters.

Fasteners, Anchor Technology, and Ophthalmoi

The vessel’s hull itself was almost entirely devoured by marine organisms, likely due to exposure above the protective sediment between the two rocks where she settled. However, over 150 metallic fasteners (ranging from small tacks to large, double-clenched copper nails), as well as several hull and frame fragments, were recovered and documented. Notable as well are the remains of five wooden anchors, evidenced by 14 lead stock cores—the earliest securely dated examples of lead-filled anchor stocks and a crucial transitional technology from stone to fully metallic anchors. Two types of anchor stocks are represented: ones with two long and others with four short lead cores, the largest measuring over 1 meter in length.

Remarkably, two white marble ophthalmoi—convex disks approximately 14 centimeters in diameter, incised with concentric circles and colored with pigment—were found. These ship’s eyes are the only securely stratified examples ever recovered from an ancient shipwreck, providing rare physical confirmation of iconographical representations of ancient Greek ships equipped with eyes at the bow, believed to serve both navigational and apotropaic religious functions.

Vessel Type and Comparisons

While no primary textual sources name the vessel type, morphological comparisons suggest Tektaş Burnu may have been a holkas (cargo-hauling merchantman), a class of Greek coast-hugging vessel attested in iconography and comparative archaeology. The modest size and cargo complement correspond with this assessment.

Technical Spec Table

Attribute	Details
Vessel Type	Classical Greek merchantman (holkas)
Estimated Length	10–12 meters
Estimated Tonnage	6–7 metric tons
Primary Material	Hull: Pine; Frames: Oak; Anchors: Elm
Construction Method	Shell-first, mortise-and-tenon joints, copper nails
Fasteners	>150 copper nails/tacks; double-clenched
Anchor Technology	14 lead stock cores, transitional anchors
Unique Finds	2 marble ophthalmoi (14 cm diameter)
Crew Estimate	2–3 individuals
Cargo Hold	12 m × 4 m area (main cargo), secondary spill
Dates	ca. 440–425 BCE

The technical details above provide a clear profile of the Tektaş Burnu vessel as a well-made but functionally modest merchantman reflecting the requirements of fifth-century Ionian trade: robust construction for safe passage in the wind-blown straits, yet efficient and small enough for regional coastwise commerce. The recovery of copper fasteners, the dual anchor types, and diagnostic marble ophthalmoi distinguish this wreck as a critical reference point for Classical Greek shipbuilding.

Registry and Ownership Details

Due to the pre-modern date of the vessel, there is no written registry or documentation in the sense familiar from later eras. However, the ship was likely locally owned, either by individual merchants or by a group from Erythrae or the Chian region. Amphora stamps, particularly the ERY (ΕΡΥ) monogram, strongly associate the cargo—and possibly the vessel—with the Ionian city of Erythrae. This is further supported by cargo composition, which is dominated by amphoras of local Ionian types, especially the previously unattributed pseudo-Samian variant, now securely typologized as Erythraian.

Amphora analyses indicate that Erythrae engaged actively in the regional distribution of wine, and the finding of Mendean, Chian, and Samian amphoras suggests commercial ties or collaboration with neighboring cities and/or access to various suppliers on established Ionian and Aegean routes. The presence of various amphora types and wares from different regions further hints at a vessel engaged in multi-directional trade—with ownership either private or perhaps as part of a syndicate, as attested in other Greek contexts for this era.

Wreck Chronology and Dating

Discovery Timeline and Dating Methods

Discovery: The wreck was discovered in September 1996 by INA's research vessel Virazon, at a sandy depth of between 38 and 43 meters. The initial survey revealed a mound of approximately 60 amphoras.
Excavation: Conducted in three campaigns—summer seasons of 1999, 2000, and 2001—by an international team coordinated by INA and Texas A&M University.

The dating of the Tektaş Burnu shipwreck is firmly placed between ca. 440–425 BCE based on robust ceramic typology. The principal evidence lies in the pseudo-Samian amphoras (the primary cargo), whose form, fabric, and stamped markings correspond to mid- to late-fifth-century manufacture; analysis by Mark Lawall and Deborah Carlson has refined the dating based on comparison to securely dated parallels from the Aegean and Black Sea region. Additional dating evidence comes from associated pottery assemblages—specifically, Chian amphoras representing the final phase of the bulbous necked type and a Samian-Milesian amphora datable to the last quarter of the fifth century BCE. These findings align the wreck’s date with the tail end of the Athenian Golden Age and shortly before the Peloponnesian War.

The decision to excavate the wreck was driven in part by its chronological significance, representing a rare, securely dated merchantman from a period when most material evidence for seafaring and trade comes from indirect sources or later iconography.

Site Location and Geographical Context

The wreck lies off the southwest coast of Turkey, northeast of Chios, southeast of Çeşme, and west of Sigacik—a notoriously rugged and remote part of the Aegean coast. Tektaş Burnu (“One Rock Cape”) refers to a promontory flanked by jagged rocks and exposed to the frequent meltem winds, conditions that may well have contributed to the vessel's sinking.

Detail	Information
Coordinates	Not explicit; ~38.3°N, 26.3°E
Depth	38–43 meters
Discovery	1996
Excavations	1999–2001
Location	Southeast of Çeşme, Turkey
Adjacent Sites	Sigacik (anc. Teos), Chios

Archaeological context suggests Tektaş Burnu was favorably positioned for regional trade and coastwise navigation but exposed to hazardous currents and weather. The site’s topography—two large rocks with a sandy shelf in between—accounted both for the preservation of the cargo and the destruction of most organic remains, as the hull was denied the sediment burial that can favor long-term preservation.

Wreck Event Sequence

Maritime conditions in this sector are notoriously unstable. Given the absence of severe damage to the cargo itself (the amphoras remained concentrated in a mound, with some post-sinking secondary accumulation), archaeologists speculate that the ship either foundered in a storm or ran aground due to currents or navigational error. Once the fragile hull collapsed, the cargo settled between the rocks; loose artifacts rolled down to the shelf edge, forming a secondary concentration up to 10 meters from the main site. The fact that some anchor stock cores were found downslope suggests efforts were made to arrest the vessel’s drift during the foundering.

Recovery and Archaeology

Survey and Discovery

The Tektaş Burnu site was discovered in the course of INA’s systematic survey of Turkish waters, with twelve annual expeditions by 1996 already identifying over 100 wrecks in the region. Tektaş Burnu was selected for intensive excavation because of the clear, abundant, and remarkably well-dated Classical period cargo it presented.

Excavation Campaigns and Methodology

Excavations ran each summer from 1999 to 2001, under the direction of INA founder George F. Bass (1999) and Deborah N. Carlson (post-1999), drawing teams from Texas A&M's nautical archaeology program and various U.S., U.K., and Turkish institutions. The expedition established a base camp on the near-inhospitable, rocky coast directly above the wreck, fully exposed to prevailing meltem winds that regularly disrupted diving operations and required robust logistical planning for both safety and efficiency.

Methodological innovations were critical to the successful retrieval and documentation of the site. A systematic string grid—2 x 2 meters—was laid over the main site area to ensure precise provenience recording for each find. Standard excavation tools included airlifts for sediment removal as well as hammers and chisels for freeing concreted objects. Photogrammetry (using ambient light at depth due to unusually clear water) was employed for efficient artifact mapping, ultimately superseding the slower, traditional trilateration methods. Once recovered, all artifacts were digitally photographed, measured, and cataloged in a custom relational database (FileMakerPro-based Tektas Database Solution).

Diver safety was a primary concern due to depth and currents, with divers limited to about 20 minutes per bottom time and operations paced carefully to manage decompression risk. Conservation protocols for raised artifacts followed current best practice, including gradual desalination, chemical stabilization (especially for organic remains), and secure storage.

Artifact Conservation

Organic finds—primarily wood—were severely degraded due to the aerobic conditions on the exposed seabed. Nonetheless, hundreds of analyzed wood fragments, along with metallic fasteners, were sampled, desalinated, and sent for further conservation and biological analysis (e.g., at the University of Minnesota). The copper and lead corrosion products on wood, as analysis later revealed, helped stabilize small sections of organic matter by inhibiting further microbial decay.

Documentation and Mapping

Detailed mapping was undertaken throughout the campaigns, including:

Photogrammetric mosaics of the cargo mound and artifact clusters.
Plans of the seabed before, during, and after excavation.
3D reconstructions based on cargo distribution and ship orientation.

Maps referenced in the academic record include:

Fig. 1: Regional Ionian coast
Fig. 4: Site plan showing cargo clusters and artifact dispersal
Fig. 26: Anchor stock cores in situ.

Cargo Composition and Amphora Analysis

Principal Cargo: Pseudo-Samian Amphoras (Erythraian Type)

The Tektaş Burnu wreck’s cargo is dominated by approximately 200 pseudo-Samian amphoras—large ceramic transport jars previously unattributed to a specific manufacturing center but now convincingly linked to Erythrae by both material petrography and stamped graffiti (especially the circular ERY stamp). These amphoras are characterized by squat, cylindrical necks, heavy echinoid rims, short outward-angled handles on a broad shoulder, and a conical body ending in a hollow, knob-like toe. The majority are lined with pitch (some containing grape seeds), and volumetric analysis of 59 intact jars yields an average capacity of about 25.1 liters, with some variation (larger jars up to 31.3 liters).

A subset of these amphoras bear pre-firing incuse stamps, including rare grape-leaf marks and the all-important ΕΡΥ monogram, which has now become a typological signature of fifth-century Erythraian production. The distribution of this amphora type across the Black Sea, Aegean, and eastern Mediterranean underscores its wide commercial role and has helped refine amphora typologies for Classical Ionia.

Secondary Amphora Types

Minor cargo components include:

10 amphoras of Mendean (Chalkidike) manufacture, nine filled with pine tar (identified by chemical and pollen analysis as low-temperature resin distillate from northern Aegean pine species), and one containing over 100 butchered beef bones—likely representing crew provisions or small-scale trade in salted/preserved meat.
2 Chian amphoras (final bulbous-neck phase, denoting the end of a production style in about 430 BCE).
At least 3 Samian amphoras, including a Samian-Milesian jar datable by typology to post-425 BCE.
2 North Aegean amphoras with “Lesbian” or “Peparethian” morphological features.

Pottery Assemblage

Finds from the ship’s galley and cargo include:

13 table amphoras (three sizes), all but one lined with pitch, some decorated with incised ridges and polychrome bands.
Black-glazed Chian wares: 10 slim, footless kantharoi; 2 white-slipped kantharoi; large and small one-handled cups; and a dozen handleless oil lamps.
Attic ware: Sessile kantharoi, askos, salt cellar, shallow bowl (one inscribed with Greek graffito), and a turned stone alabastron—perhaps an “elite” item of personal significance.
Coarseware shipboard pottery: hydriai, plates, jugs, mortaria, and at least four kettles (chytrai) in two sizes.
Miscellaneous: 2 bronze bucket handles, ladle shaft, and two bone tiles (possibly gaming pieces).

These finds speak both to probable galley stores (for the small crew) and to the types of merchandise intended for trade or regional distribution. The predominance of local and east Greek pottery, with only rare Attic imports, confirms the vessel’s function within local coastal commerce.

Crew and Social History

Direct evidence for the crew is necessarily limited, but extrapolation from finds, vessel size, and Classical literary and iconographical parallels suggests that the Tektaş Burnu would have been operated by a modest crew of two to four individuals. The provision of beef (disassembled and stored in amphorae), galley wares, and the inclusion of a handful of luxury or possibly personal items (Attic kantharos, askos, alabastron) fit the known practices of shipboard life: a small, close-knit team responsible for navigation, cargo management, and their own provisioning.

The social status of traders engaged in such enterprises was often middling; not the grandees or strategoi of Athenian narrative, but the working maritime artisans and merchants whose activities underpinned the local and regional economy. Comparison with crew size on similar vessels (such as the Kyrenia ship) reinforces this estimate and supplies a model for life and labor aboard a Classical merchantman.

Archaeological and Maritime Significance

The Tektaş Burnu shipwreck is significant for several converging reasons:

It is the only fully excavated Classical shipwreck from the Aegean, filling a critical gap in archaeological evidence for local maritime economy and technology during the fifth century BCE.
The amphora typology, especially the secure attribution of pseudo-Samian forms to Erythrae, is a landmark in the study of East Greek ceramic production, trade, and distribution. The identifying stamps and chemical analyses now provide a baseline for the provenance and typological progression of Erythraian amphorae—an area previously obscure in the archaeological record.
The site yielded the earliest securely stratified marble ship’s eyes (ophthalmoi) and lead-filled anchor stocks, linking iconographic and textual accounts of Greek seafaring with rare physical finds and demonstrating technological innovation in anchor manufacture during a period of rapid maritime adaptation.
Cargo analysis, especially of amphora contents and distribution, challenges established assumptions about the scale and scope of Classical maritime trade. The inclusion of preserved beef and specialist pine tar as cargo, along with regional tablewares, suggests a local, non-Athenian sphere of economic activity and highlights the persistence of north-south coastal exchange even as “imperial” trade is often privileged in narrative sources.
Comparative value is high. Systematic analysis alongside better-known shipwrecks (e.g., Kyrenia, Porticello, Alonnesos) enables scholars to reconstruct technological and economic transitions, such as the shift from stone to metal anchors, the standardization of cargo containers, and the integration of local and long-distance exchange networks.

Site Mapping and Primary Documentation

While the exact latitude and longitude are usually withheld to protect the integrity of the archaeological site, approximate coordinates place the wreck at:

Latitude ~38.3°N
Longitude ~26.3°E
Depth: 38–43 meters.

Key mapping outputs from the excavation include:

Regional map of the Ionian coast with the Tektaş Burnu location highlighted.
Pre-excavation mosaics showing main and secondary cargo concentrations.
Site plans subdividing artifact distributions by grid squares and artifact types (amphoras, pottery, anchors, hull).
Annotated photogrammetry mosaics of the seabed and excavated features.

Digital Modeling: Rhinosoft 3D models and photogrammetric reconstructions have been used for educational and research purposes, allowing for theoretical cargo distribution and hull reconstruction based on original excavation data and spatial records.

Archival References and Comparative Analysis

Published primary source materials and analyses on the Tektaş Burnu wreck are extensive. Among the most notable:

Carlson, D.N.: Several major publications synthesize the archaeological, ceramic, and technical evidence from the site, covering economic implications, amphora typology, anchor technology, and ship architecture.
Van Duivenvoorde, W.: Detailed study of hull construction and copper nail technology, with implications for wider mortise-and-tenon building traditions in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Lawall, M.L.: Amphora typology and the relationship between ceramic stamps, trade, and production centers.
Trethewey, K., Nowak, T.J., Jurgens, J.A.: Specialist reports and scientific studies on anchor core analysis, ophthalmoi typology, and wood biology.

Comparative Shipwrecks:

Alonnesos (ca. 430–400 BCE, N. Sporades): Much larger (ca. 22x8m, 1000+ amphoras), possibly Athens-directed, underlining the “modesty” and local focus of Tektaş Burnu.
Porticello (early 4th c. BCE) and Kyrenia (late 4th c. BCE): Both provide context for ship size, crew, construction, and trade patterns.

Table: Registry Details and Wreck Coordinates

Attribute	Details
Shipwreck Name	Tektaş Burnu Shipwreck
Date of Wreck	ca. 440–425 B.C.E.
Discovery Year	1996
Excavation Years	1999–2001
Discovering Agency	Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA), Texas
Location	Southwest of Sigacik (ancient Teos), east of Chios, Turkey
Depth	38–43 meters
Coordinates	Approx. 38.3°N, 26.3°E
Main Cargo	~200 pseudo-Samian (Erythraian) amphoras (wine)
Secondary Cargo	Pine tar (Mendean amphoras), beef, pottery
Ship Length	10–12 meters
Construction	Shell-first, mortise-and-tenon, copper nails
Unique Finds	Marble ophthalmoi, lead anchor stock cores
Primary Origin	Erythrae, Chios area (Ionian/Greek)
Crew Size Estimate	2–4 individuals
Registry Status	Pre-modern, no formal registry
Archaeologist Lead	George Bass, Deborah Carlson
Funding/Support	INA, Texas A&M, National Geographic, NEH, Turkish Ministry of Culture

Legacy

The Tektaş Burnu shipwreck remains a benchmark case study in Classical maritime archaeology. Its excavation revolutionized the field by providing:

Secure dating evidence and local origin marks for pseudo-Samian amphoras, refocusing amphora research on regional Ionian production and export rather than only Athenian-centric trading models.
Critical data on Classical shipbuilding technology, notably the shell-first construction, mortise-and-tenon joinery, and early use of copper fasteners and lead anchor stocks, correcting and enriching current reconstructions of merchant vessel evolution.
Physical confirmation of symbolic features—marble ship’s eyes—linking Greek spiritual and seafaring practices, thus bridging iconographical, textual, and archaeological evidence.
A nuanced view of local trade in the Aegean, demonstrating persistent, resilient commercial activity and exchange among Ionian cities, even in the shadows of growing Athenian imperialism.
Multidisciplinary conservation and analysis techniques, from digital photogrammetry and relational cataloging databases to elemental analysis of wood, metal, and amphora contents—a methodological model emulated in subsequent wreck excavations.

Furthermore, by serving as the only fully excavated Classical shipwreck in Aegean waters, Tektaş Burnu provides critical comparative data for both contemporaneous and successor shipwrecks, such as those at Kyrenia and Alonnesos. Its finds reside in museum and research collections in Turkey, such as the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, where they continue to educate, inspire, and spur new scholarly questions about ancient maritime worlds.

Archaeologists and historians now recognize Tektaş Burnu as pivotal for understanding the intersection of local Ionian economy and wider Mediterranean trade in the fifth century BCE. The methodologies, findings, and typological breakthroughs arising from this wreck will likely inform maritime and ceramic archaeological research for decades to come.

Conclusion

The Tektaş Burnu shipwreck, discovered and excavated under challenging conditions, provides perhaps the clearest and most accessible archaeological “snapshot” of local Greek maritime trade in the Classical era available to us today. From its modest size and regionally distinctive cargo to its rare technical finds (marble eyes and anchor stocks), every aspect of the wreck advances our understanding of ancient seafaring, trade, and the daily lives of the Ionian Greeks. By linking the hitherto enigmatic “pseudo-Samian” amphorae to Erythrae, and by confirming trade connections with Chios, Mende, Samos, and beyond, the site stands not simply as a collection of artifacts, but as testimony to the vibrancy and adaptability of regional economies during the period of Athenian ascendancy.

Beyond its technical and commercial importance, Tektaş Burnu illuminates the complexities and subtleties of intercultural interaction in a world where the boundaries of empire and autonomy, local identity and supraregional exchange, were in constant negotiation—on land and, as this shipwreck so eloquently demonstrates, at sea.

References

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