Draft:Talayotic period in Menorca

• Comment: This draft looks very complete but has a lot of unreferenced material. Bobby Cohn (talk) 14:59, 30 April 2025 (UTC)

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Talayot de Trebalúger

The Talayotic period in Menorca refers the time between the construction of the first talayots and the beginning of population concentration in urban settlements, lasting until the period of contact and influence from the Punic world, according to some authors (V. Llull), or until the arrival of the Romans, according to others (Ll. Plantalamor). It encompasses the final centuries of the Bronze Age and almost the entire Iron Age. The preceding period is known as the Pre-Talayotic^[1] or Naviform period.^[2][3]

Chronological period

Chronological proposal of Museum of Menorca

One of the chronological frameworks for the Talayotic period in Menorca was proposed by Lluís Plantalamor^[1]. According to this author, around 1500 BC, a significant cultural change occurred due to the arrival of foreign people on the island of Menorca. Previous ways of life began to be abandoned, and the first concentrations of houses and villages appeared, where a defensive priority (with fortifications walls and talayots), social hierarchization, specialization of communal labor, and gradual complexity in rituals and religious beliefs were established. Four periods are distinguished:

Talayotic I (1500-1000 BC)

A transitional period. The burial systems from the previous period (such as navetas) are still in use, but new construction models emerge due to the community's defensive needs (talayots and fortification walls). Ceramic manufacturing is refined, and bronze metallurgy is introduced. The most characteristic monument of this new culture is the talayot. It can be defined as a large, truncated conical tower (also truncated pyramidal in Mallorca), the walls of which are built with a large block exterior face and a smaller stone interior face; the space between the two faces is filled with smaller stones and earth. In Menorca, it is rare for the talayot to have an interior chamber, so it is usually solid.

Talayotic II (1000-700 BC)

The construction systems from the Pre-Talayotic period are abandoned, and large urban concentrations are developed. Social hierarchy and the division of labor are reinforced, resulting in a fully urban cultural stage. It is from this period that unique sanctuaries in the Mediterranean are built: the Taula. These are enclosures with a more or less horseshoe-shaped plan, surrounded by a Cyclopean wall with columns interspersed, and inside, there is a large monolithic column with a rectangular base, topped with a flat and very prominent capital, which leads to the analogy of a table.^{[4][5][6][7][8]}

Talayotic III (700-300 BC)

The increasing commercial contacts with the Greeks, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians lead the Talayotic people to reinforce their villages with additional defensive constructions, such as bastions and defense towers. On the other hand, new construction techniques are introduced, including circular houses with central courtyards, and sumptuary bronze objects and iron weaponry begin to appear.

Talayotic IV (400/300-123 BC)

Trade with the great maritime civilizations of the Mediterranean is intensified. It evolves from a simple exchange of valuable objects (likely intended to honor the Talayotic chieftains) to the transfer of basic goods and food. Rome becomes a hegemonic power, and this leads to the decline of Menorca, which gradually becomes marginalized once its Carthaginian ally was defeated. The interior settlements were destroyed and rebuilt during the Punic Wars but eventually fall into decay. The Talayotic sanctuaries (the Taula) were abandoned. Instead, the Talayotic communities located at the edges of the most important natural harbors gain prominence. The continuous presence of foreign merchants brings late Talayotic communities closer to their docks.

Chronological proposal of Autonomous University of Barcelona

This proposal by the Social Archaeology Group of the Mediterranean, led by V. Llull, considers that the first Talayotic manifestations occurred around 1000 BC, when the first talayots appear, contemporaneously with the last Pre-Talayotic naviform structures. Their periodization responds to the research conducted at the Son Fornés settlement (Mallorca) and the Caves of Es Càrritx and Es Mussol (Menorca). They propose naming each stage based on the specific elements that inhabited the Balearic Islands at each moment. The Talayotic period is divided into three phases: the 'Protalayotic' (1050–850 BC), during which the habitation navetas are abandoned, settlement shifts to larger communities, relations with Mallorca decrease, and the first signs of differentiated treatment in funerary practices are detected; the 'Talayotic' (850–550 BC), during which the first talayots are constructed and the first signs of social hierarchization emerge; and the 'Post-Talayotic' (550–123 BC), during which monumental circular houses (Circles) appear, the construction of Taula enclosures as the main building of the settlement begins, large artificial cave necropolises appear (beginning of burial in lime), and social complexity grows with an increasing importance of contacts with the Punic world, integrating the islands into the Mediterranean trade networks.^[3]

Chronological proposal of University of the Balearic Islands

According to the research of V. Guerrero, M. Calvo, and B. Salvá—all from the University of the Balearic Islands—the Talayotic culture is essentially considered an Iron Age society, with its genesis placed around 900 BC, marked by the construction of the first talayots, and ending in 123 BC with the Roman conquest of the Balearic Islands. A key element in this periodization is their view that the Talayotic culture is the result of the internal evolution of Late Bronze Age Pre-Talayotic societies, further influenced by Punic trade in the western Mediterranean.^[9]

Most recent chronological proposal

A recent chronological proposal focused on the context of Menorca, based on the results of recent research,^[10] suggests that the development of Talayotic culture in Menorca presents quite distinct characteristics from that of Mallorca, and that the chronological development of both may not be fully synchronous. According to this view, the Talayotic phenomenon in Menorca would have begun around 1200 BC, and the first stage of this culture (Initial Talayotic) would have lasted until 500 BC. It is characterized by the construction of monumental structures known as talayots, around which new settlements emerged, replacing the earlier naviform house settlements. The stage between 500 BC and Romanization (1st century BC) is referred to as the Final Talayotic period, and it is marked by a series of social changes possibly related to the growing influence of the Punic colonial world.^[11]

Talayotic society of Menorca

Economy

According to archaeological excavations carried out at Talayotic sites, the economy of these societies appears to have been based on cereal agriculture and the raising of goats and sheep, and to a lesser extent, pigs and oxen.

Agriculture was an important part of their diet. It was centered around cereals, as evidenced by the large number of grinding stones (vaivén mills) found in various settlements and the recent discovery of buildings that seem to have had a redistributive function for these foodstuffs along with the meat from domesticated animals.^[12]

According to data from the western sector of Cornia Nou, the livestock was composed mostly of goats and sheep (76%), followed by pigs (16%) and cattle (8%), the latter likely also used as working animals.

Religion

Little is known about the belief systems at the beginning of the Talayotic period. We can only infer that rituals connected to the subterranean world (such as those at the Cova des Mussol) were abandoned, and that there was a certain increase in the presence of the bull in some rituals, especially in the funerary context. We have no knowledge at all of what the religious buildings were like at the beginning of this period.

Death

As with the world of beliefs, we are faced with a lack of knowledge regarding the treatment of the dead at the beginning of the Talayotic period. Only the emergency excavation of Hypogeum XXI^[13] and the final phases of use of the caves of Es Càrritx^[3] and Es Pas have provided us with data on the funerary practices at the start of the Talayotic world.

Talayotic architecture

Most of the Talayotic-period structures we know today belong to the Late Talayotic or Post-Talayotic phase. The talayot is the only architectural element clearly associated with this period, along with a few adjoining buildings such as those excavated at Cornia Nou. As for settlements and religious enclosures, little to nothing is currently known.

Funerary Navetas

A characteristic and exclusive construction of the Talayotic period in Menorca is the so-called funerary navetas. These are buildings shaped like an upside-down boat, a feature that gives them their name. The entrance is small, and they were used exclusively for collective burials. They were built in the early stages of the Talayotic period.ç

Habitat Spaces

Once the naviform settlements were abandoned—as documented at various archaeological sites on the island, such as Cala Morell, Son Mercer de Baix, and others—the population relocated to new settlements. However, we do not know for certain what their houses were like. Most likely, later renovations and constructions built directly over these earlier habitats have made them difficult to document.

Talayot

Talayot of Torellonet Vell (Maó)

This is the architectural element that gives its name to the cultural period. These are the most numerous monuments of prehistoric Menorca (more than 300), but due to the lack of excavations, we could say they are among the least understood structures of the period. Recent excavations suggest their origin dates to the end of the 2nd millennium BCE and that they remained in use until around 500 BCE.

The talayots of Menorca, unlike those of Mallorca, display a great typological diversity: some have attached structures, like the one at Cornia Nou; others have a square layout, an elliptical shape, an interior chamber like the one at Sant Agustí, or a corridor, among other variations.

The function of these buildings is not known for certain. Their structural diversity suggests they may have served different purposes, such as watchtowers within settlements, buildings with cultic or ritual characteristics, symbolic elements representing the power of the ruling class, territorial control structures, and so on.

In Menorca, there is clear evidence of talayot construction around the year 1000 BCE—for example, at Cornia Nou—while in Mallorca, the earliest evidence seems to date only as far back as 850 BCE. In both islands, it appears that at least some of these buildings began to fall into decline between 600 and 500 BCE, coinciding with the beginning of Punic influence. This phase, known as the Post-Talayotic Period, Final Talayotic Period, or Balearic Period, is characterized by the growing influence of Punic culture. It came to an end with the Roman conquest of the islands in 123 BCE.

Buildings attached to Talayots

View of west talayot of Cornia Nou and attached building

Although no habitats from this period have been documented, a group of buildings attached to the Western Talayot of Cornia has been excavated that would chronologically correspond to this period. These are structures surrounding the talayot, with a rectangular floor plan and sharply defined corners. The walls, built using cyclopean techniques, are double-faced, thick, and tall. Based on archaeological evidence, these appear to be buildings related to food processing, particularly grain and meat, and their function would have been linked to the redistribution of these foods. This has led researchers to consider the possibility of an emerging social hierarchy, where an elite held control over resources.

Religious enclosures

Little is known today about cultic buildings from the Talayotic period. It appears that caves were abandoned as ritual sites (such as the Cave of Es Mussol), and these practices moved into the settlements. At the site of Trepucó, remains of a structure predating the taula enclosure can be observed, although it cannot be conclusively identified as religious in nature.

Funerary spaces

Inside view of Calescoves hypogeum

During the transition from the Pre-Talayotic to the Talayotic period—referred to as the Proto-Talayotic, Talayotic II, or the early phase of the Initial Talayotic—changes in funerary rituals are observed. These include variations in the use of walled caves (such as the cave of Es Càrritx), navetas, and the introduction of new funerary spaces such as natural caves (like Es Pas) and simple-plan hypogea. Among the new rituals, one of the most notable involves hair: dyeing, cutting, and storing it inside animal horn tubes. This practice has been documented in the caves of Es Càrritx (Algendar, Ciutadella)^[3], Es Pas (Algendar), and Es Morts (Mongofra, Maó).

All this diversity of funerary rituals and sites becomes rather blurred during the peak period of Talayotic culture, from around 850–800 BC to 500 BC. The Hypogeum XXI of Cales Coves is one of the few sites—along with the final phase of the caves of Es Càrritx and Es Pas—that provides us with information. Despite having been looted, the excavation of the hypogeum yielded remains of wooden stretchers and coffins used for burying the dead, various grave goods such as spearheads, a silver earring, and more. It also revealed the presence of bull tail vertebrae and plugs made from ox femurs, suggesting the possible symbolic importance of the bull during this time.^[13]

World heritage Site

Talayotic Menorca was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2023. It comprises a group of archaeological sites that bear witness to an exceptional insular prehistoric culture, characterized by unique cyclopean architecture. The island preserves distinctive monuments such as funerary navetas, circular houses, taula sanctuaries, and talayots, all in perfect harmony with the Menorcan landscape and its relationship with the sky.

Menorca has one of the richest archaeological landscapes in the world, shaped by generations that have preserved the Talayotic legacy. It has the highest density of prehistoric sites per surface area on any island and serves as a powerful symbol of its insular identity.

The area is divided into nine zones that encompass both archaeological sites and their associated landscapes, covering a timeline from the emergence of cyclopean constructions around 1600 BC to the Romanization in 123 BC. The exceptional value of its monuments and landscapes led to its inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2023.

References

1. PLANTALAMOR MASSANET, L. (1991) L'arquitectura prehistórica i protohistórica de Menorca i el seu marc cultural. Treballs del Museu de Menorca 12. Maó.
2. GUERRERO AYUSO, V., CALVO TRIAS, M., SALVÀ SIMONET, B. (2002) "La edad del Bronce Balear (c. 1700-1000/900 BC). Desarrollo de la complejidad social" a Complutum, 13. Madrid.
3. LULL, V., MICO, R., RIHUETE HERRADA, C. y RISCH, R. (1999), Ideología y Sociedad en la Prehistoria de Menorca. La Cova des Carritx y la Cova des Mussol. Consell Insular de Menorca, Barcelona
4. FERNANDEZ MIRANDA, M.: Las Taulas, en geografía e Historia de Menorca - Tomo III, pp. 321-379, Ciudadela, 1982
5. IBÁÑEZ ORTS, V. y FERRER RIBES, F. (1998): Taulas de Menorca. Análisis geométrico. "Revista de Arqueología", 209. Madrid, Septiembre de 1998.
6. HOCHSIEDER, P. y KNÖSEL, D.: Les Taules de Menorca. Un Estudi Arqueoastronòmic, Govern Balear, 1995.
7. HOSKIN, M.: Menorcan Taulas, en IIIrd Deià Conference of Prehistory: Ritual, Rites and Religion in Prehistory - British Archaeological Reports - BAR International Series 611, pp. 38-67, Oxford, 1995.
8. WALDREN, W.H. y HOSKIN, M.: Taulas and Talayots, Foster and Jagg Ltd., Cambridge, 1988
9. GUERRERO, V.M., CALVO, M., SALVÀ, B., 2002, La cultura talayótica. Una sociedad de la Edad del Hierro en la periferia de la colonización fenicia, Complutum 13, 221-258
10. ANGLADA, M.; FERRER, A.; PLANTALAMOR, Ll.; RAMIS, D.; VAN STRYDONCK, M. ; DE MULDER, G. (2014): "Chronological framework for the early talayotic period in Menorca: the settlement of Cornia Nou". Radiocarbon, Vol 56, Nr 2
11. Anglada, M., Ferrer, A., & Ramis, D. Actividad humana en el litoral de Menorca durante la Prehistoria. In Gómez-Pujol, L. y Pons, G.X. (eds.) 2017. Geomorfología litoral de Menorca: dinámica, evolución y prácticas de gestión. Mon. Soc. Hist. Nat. Balears, 25: 213-233. Palma, Societat d'Història Natural de Balears. ISBN 978-84-697-5311-8
12. ANGLADA, MONTSERRAT «Continuïtat cultural en època de canvis: la producció i preparació d'aliments a Cornia Nou (Maó, Menorca) durant els segles IV-III aC.». CEPOAT nº 2, 2017.
13. GORNÉS, J. SIMÓN; GUAL, JOANA «Avanç dels contexts arqueològics i de la cronologia absoluta de l'hipogeu XXI de Cales Coves». Mayurqa nº 31, 2006, pàg. 165-182.