Draft:Michael Smuss

Michael Smuss
מייקל סמוס‎
Michael Smuss at the main railway station in Ingolstadt/Germany, before 2000
Born	(1926-04-15) April 15, 1926 (age 99) Free City of Danzig
Nationality	Israeli
Known for	Holocaust witness; participation in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising

Michael Smuss (Hebrew: מייקל סמוס‎; born April 15, 1926, in Danzig, Free City of Danzig—now Gdańsk, Poland)^[1] is a Holocaust survivor who fought in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising.^[2][3] As of April 2025, he has been described as the last known living fighter in that uprising.^[2][3] He has given public testimony about the uprising, including a Yom HaShoah 2024 event in Munich, Germany.^[4]

During the Second World War, he joined the active resistance and fought in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. After the uprising was crushed, he was deported to various concentration camps and subcamps, including Wieliczka and Flossenbürg. There he was used for forced labor before surviving a death march in the spring of 1945.

Today, Smuss lives in Tel Aviv, where he works as an artist.^[5]

Life

Origin and Expulsion - The Early Years

Smuss was born in the Free City of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland). He grew up in a Jewish merchant family in the Old Town. The family ran a haberdashery and perfume shop at 141 Holy Spirit Street, known in Polish as Ulica Świętego Ducha.

With the rise of the National Socialists in Danzig in the early 1930s, the situation for the Jewish population deteriorated increasingly. The proximity of the parents' business to the regional NSDAP office (Gaubüro)^[6] led to increasing hostility. Daily life for Jews in the Free City of Danzig grew increasingly hostile, marked by discrimination, boycotts and violence.^[7] The "complete freedom to conduct business in the Danzig region"^[8] once solemnly promised by Senate President Rauschnigg had degenerated into a hollow phrase. As a result of the repression against Jews, the family was forced to emigrate in 1938. They left Danzig and moved to Lodz.

In the Warsaw Ghetto - Survival and Resistance

After the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, Michael Smuss fled to Warsaw with his father. His mother and sister initially remained in Łódź and survived the war there.

In Warsaw, Smuss lived in the Warsaw Ghetto, a collection camp established in November 1940, where the Jewish population was interned under catastrophic conditions. Living conditions were characterized by overcrowding, hunger, forced labor, disease, and the constant threat of deportation.

The arrest of the forced laborers of the Brauer armaments company" (April 1943).

According to his own account, Smuss joined the Jewish resistance in the ghetto in 1943. He was active in an underground group of the socialist-Zionist youth organization HaShomer haZa'ir, led by Mordechai Anielewicz. In this role, he worked as a courier, smuggling messages out of the ghetto and weapons into it.

During the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising that broke out on April 19, 1943, Smuss, according to his own account, secretly participated in the fighting. After the uprising was crushed, he was arrested along with his father and other colleagues.^[9] The incident was documented in the so-called Stroop Report,^[10] which describes the violent destruction of the ghetto from the perspective of the SS.

Stroop Report (opening letter dated May 16, last entry dated May 24, 1943).

A well-known photo from the report shows a group of arrested Jewish forced laborers, described as "department heads" of an armaments company. According to Smuss, the people depicted are himself (eighth from the right, in a long coat), his father (seventh from the right), and other colleagues who had been forced to work at the Brauer armaments company.^[9] In the background of the picture, damaged steel helmets are visible, "armaments" that were intended for recycling.

The uprising ended with the systematic destruction of the ghetto by the German occupation forces - including deliberate arson, the use of heavy weapons, the flooding of underground hiding places, and mass shootings. The final Stroop Report refers to the "annihilation of the Jewish residential district in Warsaw."

Near-deportation to Treblinka

After the suppression of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in the spring of 1943, the remaining able-bodied Jews were taken by the German occupation authorities to the so-called "Umschlagplatz" - the central assembly point near the train station from which transports to the extermination camps were organized. There they sometimes waited for several hours or days before being loaded into cattle cars. In order to reach the specified number of deportees for a transport, additional "human material" was brought from Warsaw Airport. Smuss and his group were among the prisoners gathered there. The presumably last scheduled deportation train from the Warsaw Ghetto to the Treblinka extermination camp^[9] was ready to depart.

However, upon reaching the track junction near Malkinia, the transport was stopped: Wehrmacht vehicles blocked the line. An argument broke out between Luftwaffe officers and the accompanying SS guards. The officers demanded the return of their Jewish forced laborers, who were classified as "essential to the war effort." After about thirty minutes, their request was apparently granted: instead of continuing on to Treblinka, the train returned to Warsaw Airport. There, the requested workers were ordered to leave the train.

According to Michael Smuss, he managed to disembark along with his father and several other people. Using his knowledge of German, he and others identified themselves as skilled workers, which prevented them from being forced back onto the train by the SS. This allowed them to avoid deportation to the Treblinka extermination camp.

Budzyń and Mielec - forced labor in the service of the war economy

After his transfer from Warsaw, Michael Smuss was taken to the Budzyń forced labor camp in the Lublin district, part of the Nazi camp system for the exploitation of Jewish labor. He was transported by truck. From the beginning of 1943 until the end of August of that year, the camp was under the command of SS-Oberscharführer Reinhold Feix, whose violent treatment of prisoners was repeatedly discussed in later reports.

Michael Smuss was separated from his father there. He himself was assigned to a work group that was transferred daily to the Heinkel aircraft factory in Mielec - a later subcamp of the Plaszów concentration camp. There, Jewish forced laborers were employed as mechanics, assemblers, and assistants in armaments production.

His father remained in the Budzyń camp and, according to contemporary witnesses, worked as an interpreter. According to information from the resistance circles in the camp, he was shot one night by Reinhold Feix, allegedly for attempting to escape. To avoid a similar threat to Michael Smuss, fellow prisoners organized his permanent work assignment outside of Feix's immediate reach in Mielec.

Work in aircraft production temporarily offered the prisoners concerned relative protection from deportation and murder. One of the reasons for this was the increasing nervousness of the Nazi leadership following acts of resistance by Jewish prisoners. In particular, the uprising at the Sobibór extermination camp on October 14, 1943, in which around 600 prisoners attempted to escape, is cited as a possible trigger for a secret order by Heinrich Himmler stating that all labor camps were to be "liquidated for security reasons."

This order culminated in the so-called "Aktion Erntefest" in early November 1943. This was a coordinated mass shooting of over 40,000 Jewish prisoners in the Majdanek, Trawniki, and Poniatowa camps. The operation is not considered part of "Aktion Reinhardt" but rather an independent extermination program, a precursor to "Aktion 1005", with which the regime had already attempted to erase its traces.

The Budzyń and Mielec camps were spared from Operation Harvest Festival. Historians suspect this was related to their role in the war economy and their organizational involvement in armaments production. Although Mielec was also under the control of the SS, the participating armaments companies apparently exerted influence over the retention of their workforce. In this tension between economic benefit and the National Socialist ideology of extermination (see also Aktion 14f13), some of the prisoners managed to survive – including Smuss.

From Wieliczka to Flossenbürg - Last Stations of Forced Labor

In the summer of 1944, as the Red Army approached Kraków, the Nazi authorities began evacuating several camps in occupied Poland. Prisoners from the Wieliczka subcamp of the Plaszów concentration camp were also relocated during this phase. Michael Smuss was among a group of forced laborers who were brought to the underground salt mine after July 20, 1944. As part of the underground relocation, aircraft parts for the German Air Force were to be manufactured there in makeshift underground workshops.

The working conditions were extremely poor: high humidity, inadequate lighting, and unprotected electrical cables in water-bearing tunnels made the work dangerous. After a few days, the group was transferred again—initially toward Auschwitz. However, the train never reached the camp. According to later reports, at the request of the Messerschmitt aircraft factory, they were transferred to the Flossenbürg concentration camp in Upper Palatinate. The journey there took about two days, including waiting periods, and was without food. According to Michael Smuss, many of the prisoners desperately begged for water during the journey.

Schematic map concentration camp Flossenbürg 1938-45.

Upon arrival in Flossenbürg, the prisoners were forced to remove their clothes and led to the so-called "shower". Fear of possible gassing was great, but water did indeed flow from the showers. They were then given the typical striped camp clothing, so-called "Winkel" (chevrons) to identify the prisoner group, and wooden shoes. Smuss was tattooed with the prisoner number 60109. A number inscribed on his forehead determined his assigned work assignment: 1 for the quarry, 2 for the armaments factory.

Although Smuss was assigned to armaments production, he initially had to work in the granite quarry. Conditions there were particularly harsh: hard physical labor, violence from guards, falls, and complete exhaustion. According to their own statements, many prisoners fell victim to the ordeal within the first few days. After a short time, Smuss was transferred to a Messerschmitt detachment at the Messerschmitt factory, where Bf 109 aircraft were manufactured.

A strictly regulated three-shift system^[11] with eight-hour shifts was in place in the factory halls. Nevertheless, abuse by guards regularly occurred there. Smuss retrospectively reported that prisoners were beaten with rifle butts by SS guards and so-called Ukrainian auxiliaries on their way to their worksite.

Living conditions in the Flossenbürg camp were generally extremely stressful: overcrowding, hunger, typhus, and regular executions decimated the work groups. Roll calls, which took place several times a day, often lasted for hours. Prisoners who collapsed or moved during them were beaten or shot. Sunday roll calls, during which public executions took place, were particularly feared. Even simple tasks such as building beds could lead to violence or the death penalty if violated. To avoid attracting negative attention, some prisoners volunteered for so-called "special assignments," even on rest days.

During one of these missions, Michael Smuss, according to his own account, noticed the result of such an execution: three men in German officer uniforms were hanging by the roadside. According to Smuss, they were generals. The incident may have been part of one of the last scheduled executions in the camp. For fear of discovery, he only dared a quick glance before having to move on.

Evacuation - marching towards Dachau

In April 1945, the SS began evacuating the Flossenbürg concentration camp. As a result of the Allied advance, thousands of prisoners were transferred south in so-called evacuation transports. On April 16, 1945, a freight train carrying Jewish prisoners, including Michael Smuss, left the camp for Dachau, Bavaria - destination: Dachau concentration camp.

Near the town of Floß, the train was strafed by low-flying American aircraft, presumably under the assumption that it was a German military transport. Numerous prisoners were killed or injured. When some prisoners attempted to escape, SS guards opened fire. Others were killed. The transport subsequently continued.

After another attack near Schwarzenfeld, the locomotive was destroyed. The survivors were driven from the train cars and divided into marching groups of about 200 people. The remaining journey continued on foot towards the southeast. According to contemporary witnesses, prisoners who were no longer able to walk were shot or beaten to death by SS guards.

Near the town of Stamsried US troops approached. The guards threw down their weapons and fled; for the prisoners, the death march was over. Michael Smuss was later picked up by American soldiers and taken to a hospital.

Between Ruins and Hope - Steps into a New Life

After his liberation from Nazi persecution, Michael survived the severe physical and psychological consequences of imprisonment, forced labor, and flight and expulsion. He received medical care and initial stabilization in a hospital run by the US Army. His subsequent release marked the beginning of a new phase in his life-the challenge of reorienting his own path after the Shoah.

In search of surviving relatives, Michael returned to Łódź. There he met his mother and sister, who had also survived. Due to antisemitic hostility toward returning Jews in Poland, they decided to leave the country again. The family arrived in the American occupation zone of Germany and was admitted to the Lampertheim DP camp.

New World - New Life: An Illusion

After arriving in the United States, Michael obtained an apartment and a job. He married, started a family, and began studying at the City College of New York. He graduated from high school in 1956 with a degree in accounting and tax law.

However, Michael remained silent about his traumatic experiences during the Holocaust. Neither his wife nor his children learned about his ordeal, the significance of his prisoner number, or the circumstances of his past in his early years. Only much later did sporadic conversations take place, but questions often remained unanswered - silence prevailed.

Despite the emotional strain, Michael built a financial life for himself. He founded his own beverage store and initially achieved entrepreneurial success. However, financial and legal difficulties ultimately led to the closure of the business.

Parallel to these setbacks, increasingly psychological problems emerged. Michael suffered from post-traumatic stress and tormenting nightmares. The causes were unclear, and therapeutic treatment in a clinic brought no improvement – ​​on the contrary: the prescribed medication exacerbated his symptoms, and he increasingly lost the sense of control over his life.

In order not to be a burden to his family, Michael withdrew and separated from his wife and children in 1979. He left the United States and traveled to Israel, where he still lives today.

There, a new phase of his life began – as an artist, he found expression for his inner experiences. He gained international renown with his series of works, Reflections of a Survivor („Reflexionen eines Überlebenden").^[12]

The own Aliyah - Decision for Israel

After arriving in Israel, Michael quickly found work in Tel Aviv thanks to his language skills. Most importantly, he met people there who had similar experiences during the Shoah. He decided to stop seeking medical help and instead reorient himself through artistic self-reflection.

He began painting – initially self-taught, through pure experimentation. A neighbor who played the cello became a source of sonic inspiration. Michael often painted while listening to music – a connection that proved healing for him. He later said: "Music and painting helped me get my life back on track."

Through his growing circle of friends, Michael was invited to Arad (see also Tel Arad) in the Negev Desert. An acquaintance had founded a spa there, amidst the tranquil expanse of the historic desert landscape. It was here that Michael met Ruthy – his future wife, who became his great love and emotional support. With her, he found his way back to life. After their marriage, they moved back to Tel Aviv together.

During this phase, Michael made the conscious decision to no longer suppress his story, but to tell it artistically. Painting became a tool for him to remember, process, and communicate.^[12]

Starting around 1983—roughly four decades after his experiences in the Holocaust—an intense creative phase began, characterized by experimental approaches and strongly emotional forms of expression.

As a self-taught artist, he developed his own unique style, employing various means of expression, including collage. His works range stylistically from expressive compositions in dark, heavy colors to high-contrast images with bright accents—often used symbolically to illustrate hope, fragmentation, or emotional transitions.

A central element of his art is the reference to specific historical or personal events.^[5]

Through the deliberate use of material layering, structural contrasts, and varying painterly ductus, he succeeds in visually conveying emotional states. The collage technique - with inserted textures, fragments, or symbolic elements - opens up additional layers of interpretation and brings the complex themes of memory, trauma, and identity closer to the viewer.

Michael's works invite not only contemplation but also engagement. They create a connection between individual memory and collective history - thus providing insights into a world of experience that is difficult for many to access outside of the context of survival.

Awards

• According to an announcement by the German Embassy in Tel Aviv, Michael Smuss was awarded the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany in September 2025.^[13]

Further reading

• Schwarberg, Günther (1989). The ghetto. Birthday walk into hell (Documentation with rare images). Umschlagplatz für 330.000 Menschen (in German). Göttingen: Steidl. p. 210. ISBN 3-88243-108-3.
• Löw, Andrea (2024). Deported. Always with one foot in the grave - Experiences of German Jews (in German). Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer. pp. 8–12. ISBN 978-3-10-397542-0.
• Simon-Pelanda, Hans, ed. (1996). "Chapter about Michael Smuss". Erinnerung - Eine Ausstellung Kunst KZ Flossenbürg (in German). Panther Verlag, Ingolstadt. pp. 2–3. ISBN 3-9802831-8-6.
• Simon-Pelanda, Hans (2001). "Chapter about Michael Smuss". In arge (ed.). Kunst und KZ (in German). Pahl-Rugenstein Verlag, Bonn. pp. 40–41, 56. ISBN 3-89144-332-3.
• Thomas Muggenthaler: Dem vergessen entrissen - Fünf Radiodokumentationen. Bayerischer Rundfunk, 2009, u. a. CD 2, Torn from oblivion, terror in the camp. Track 5, OCLC 705685649.
• Holocaust survivor Mr. Michael Smuss June 8, 2022, YouTube video lecture (Hebrew), Bar-Ilan University - they
• Skribeleit, Jörg (2007). Flossenbürg - The Flossenbürg concentration camp and its satellite camps. (The resistance - last executions 04/1945) (in German). Munich: C.H. Beck. p. 48. ISBN 978-3406562297.
• Ehrhardt, Albert (2006). Chronicle of the market town of Stamsried (1945 and the period thereafter) (in German). Stamsried: Ernst Vögel. pp. 117, 118. ISBN 3-89650-234-4.
• Riebsamen, Hans (2006). Never asked - never told - The inherited trauma in the families of Holocaust survivors (in German). Stamsried: Ernst Vögel. pp. 31–34. ISBN 978-3955424787.

References

1. "A.E.F. D.P. Registration Record – Smuss, Michael". Arolsen Archives – International Center on Nazi Persecution (in German). Arolsen Archives. Retrieved 10 September 2025. Geburtsdatum: 15.4.1926; Geburtsort: Gdansk (GER) [Free City of Danzig]
2. "82 years after the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, its last living fighter bears witness". The Times of Israel. 24 April 2025.
3. "Warsaw Uprising's last survivor: The story, testimony of Michael Smuss". The Jerusalem Post. 12 April 2025.
4. "Michael Smuss on Yom HaShoa 2024: testimony from the last Ghetto Fighter". Stolpersteine München. 13 May 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2025.
5. "Michael Smuss". Information Center for Israeli Art. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved 11 September 2025. Listed on the site as "Samos, Michael".
6. Schenk, Dieter (2013). Danzig 1930–1945. Das Ende einer Freien Stadt (in German). Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag. p. 36.
7. Schenk, Dieter (2013). Danzig 1930–1945: The End of a Free City (in German). Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag. p. 44.
8. Schenk, Dieter (2013). Danzig 1930–1945. Das Ende einer Freien Stadt (in German). Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag. p. 45.
9. Wulf, Josef (1989). The Third Reich and its executors. The liquidation of the Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto (in German). Wiesbaden: Fourier. pp. 109, 41.
10. Stroop, Jürgen (1960). There is no longer a Jewish residential district in Warsaw! (Es gibt keinen jüdischen Wohnbezirk ~ in Warschau mehr!). Die jüdischen Abteilungsleiter der Rüstungsfirma ~ Brauer ~ (Image document). Luchterhand. p. 81.
11. Dr.Simon-Pelanda, Hans (2001). Forced labor. Survivor accounts of former prisoners of the Flossenbürg concentration camp (in German). Bonn: Pahl-Rugenstein. pp. 18, 19.
12. "Reflections of a Survivor – Artwork by Michael Smuss". The Florida Holocaust Museum (FHM). The Florida Holocaust Museum, Inc. Retrieved 10 September 2025.
13. German Embassy Tel Aviv [@GerAmbTLV] (11 September 2025). "Michael Smuss is the last survivor of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. He made it his mission to educate about the Shoah and against anti-semitism. Thousands of young people have learnt from his testimony. It was my great honour to bestow upon him the Federal Cross of Merit" (Tweet). Retrieved 12 September 2025 – via Twitter.

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