Draft:Lozi Kingdom

Lozi Kingdom
Status	State from 16th c.–1838 1864–1891 Currently a non-sovereign monarchy within Zambia
Capital	Lealui
Common languages	Siluyana (court)
Litunga
• 16th century	Mboo (first)
• 1878–1884, 1885–1916	Lewanika (last sovereign)
• 2000–present	Lubosi Imwiko II
History
• Established	16th century
• Conquered by the Makololo, establishment of the Kololo Kingdom	1838
• Prime Minister Njekwa expels the Makololo	1864
• Incorporated into Barotziland–North-Western Rhodesia protectorate	1891
Today part of	Zambia

The Lozi Kingdom^[a] was a state located in modern-day western Zambia ruled by the Lozi people (called Luyi or Luyana prior to the 19th century).

Name

Some traditions attribute the origins of the name Lozi to the founders of the ruling dynasty, and say it later spread to the dynasty's subjects. Other traditions say that the present-day Lozi were called Aluyana, and that the Makololo termed them Malozi in the 19th century which was subsequently adopted. Historian Mutumba Mainga considered the latter to be true, given that the language of the king's court was Siluyana. The name Rotse is a European rendering of Lozi.^[1]: 4–5

Geography

Lozi territory (Barotseland) encompasses southwestern Zambia, which consists of Kalahari desert and shrubland. The Zambezi River runs north to south, surrounded by the Bulozi Floodplain which has an abundance of alluvial deposits. The Zambezi floods annually between January and May. The Plain is flanked by forests on either side which lie on higher ground. Various tributaries of the Zambezi run across the Plain, creating small valleys.^{[1]: 1–4 [2]: 34}

History

Origins

Lozi tradition^[b] holds that they were the first people in the Bulozi Floodplain, having always inhabited it since descending from Nyambe (God) and Mbuyu (a female figure).^[c][5]: 7 Genetic evidence however supports a migration from western DR Congo in accordance with the Bantu expansion model.^[6] Traditions of other groups, such as the Kazembe-Lunda, Ndembu-Lunda, and Nkoya, say that the Luyana/Lozi state traced its roots back to the Mwata Yamvo dynasty of the Lunda Empire. Historians Mutumba Mainga, Bizeck Phiri, and Lawrence Flint all lend credence to this; most groups in Zambia trace their origin to the Congo Basin.^{[7][8]: 397 [5]: 7–8, 10} Jack Hogan however says that development of the state was local to the Plain, and that traditions claiming a Lunda origin were to project prestige.^[9] Lozi traditions mention a small people called bo Mbonezi Kai, likely a reference to the Khoisan.^[5]: 9

Lozi tradition says that the Plain was inhabited by two broad groups: northerners and southerners (who were organised into chiefdoms). Northerners included the Muenyi, Imilangu, Ndundulu, Mbowe, Liuwa, Simaa, Makoma, and Nyengo, while southerners included the Subiya, Mbukushu, Toka, Totela, Shanjo, and Fwe. Both groups are linguistically (and probably ethnically) distinct, with southerners linguistically similar to Tonga in Southern Province, whose speakers arrived earlier, and northerners somewhat linguistically similar to Luba in DR Congo. Mainga says that a Lunda dynasty arrived in the northern Plain,^{[5]: 11–2, 15–6} likely in the late-16th century,^[8]: 397 and draws comparisons to groups within the Nkoya and Luvale who received Lunda dynasties following Lunda prince Cinyama's departure after the Lunda-Luba merger which happened in the late-15th or 16th centuries. Due to similarities Lunda states such as Kazembe share with the main Lunda state that are not found in the Lozi state, Mainga theorizes that the Lozi-Lunda left soon after the merge out of disillusionment, while the other states were founded later as part of a policy of expansion and maintained ties with the main state. Mainga also considers the dynasty to have spoken a similar language to Siluyana, which was native to earlier people on northern Plain,^{[10]: 25–7} or to have adopted Siluyana as their court language.^{[5]: 12–3, 17–20}

Lozi tradition says that members of the familial dynasty rose to power among groups in the northwestern Kalabo District,^[d] whether by overthrowing local leaders or by negotiating local political systems.^[e] A leader named Mboo Mwanasilundu Muyunda became paramount, and is regarded as the first Litunga (king). According to tradition, Mboo conquered the Mishulundu, Namale, Imulangu, Upangoma, Liuwa, Muenyi, and Mambowe (all located in Kalabo District at this time), though his expansion was halted at the Luena Flats by Sihokanalinanga (likely an Nkoya leader) and his people. Tradition says that Mboo's "brothers" and "sisters" administered their own provinces, akin to a confederation, and created their own Makolo (groups of men that served as armies or labourers, which likely began as bands of followers). Disputes within the royal dynasty caused two groups to leave and found their own polities. One of these was led by Mwanambinyi, Mboo's younger brother. Traditions represent his power struggle with Mboo as a series of contests, during which he uses supernatural powers to best Mboo, provoking Mboo's hatred and jealousy. After Mwanambinyi survives a murder attempt by Mboo, he flees with his followers (called Akwanda or Makwanda) to Imatongo in Senanga District,^[8]: 398 and conquers the Mbukushu and Subiya.^[f] The second group to leave was led by Mange, Mboo's nephew, who is said to have left because he was excluded from government. Accordingly they went east across the Zambezi, and then southwards once nearer the Luena River until reaching a forest in Mongu District. Mange was said to have been a skilled hunter.^{[g][2]: 23–8, 35}

Expansion

Over the course of the next few generations, royal prestige and power strengthened, and a royal cult developed. Institutions were borrowed from other groups and created by certain Litungas.^[h] During the reign of Yeta I (the third Litunga) all Makolo came under his control, and they could only be created by the monarch. Lozi tradition credits Ngalama (the fourth Litunga) with expanding the state and conquering the polities of Mwanambinyi and Mange. Tradition represents Mwanambinyi as hiding in mist or creating floods or droughts which hamper Ngalama's forces, until attrition by war causes him and his followers to "disappear into the ground" at Imatongo.^[i][j] The conquest of Mange happens after a series of defeats and Mange's dispute with his mother Nolea over a woman, which lead Nolea to surrender Mange's protective charms to Ngalama. Mange's followers were called Akangwa Mange ("those who failed Mange"), now the Makwanga [ceb]. Mutumba Mainga considers these narratives to refer to real historical events. This saw the Lozi/Luyana overcome rival centres of secular and ritual power to dominate the Plain.^{[2]: 29–34, 38–9}

The Plain was the economic heart of the region as it was linked to the wider region via the Zambezi's many tributaries, and was amenable to production of goods not suited to the surrounding forest. These aided the Lozi's conquest of the surrounding communities, who were relatively decentralised and struggled to mount effective opposition.^[2]: 35

Government

The Mulongwanji (National Kuta or Council) was comprised by Indunas ("Councillors") and headed by the Ngambela (Prime Minister), and dealt with general matters such as law-making or war. The Ngambela acted as both the Litunga's spokesperson, and as the principal representative of the people. The Natamoyo ("Master/Mother of Life") held a special role where they could veto any decision made by the Kuta or Litunga if it were deemed harsh or unjust, and their residence served as a sanctuary for anyone condemned. Indunas lived at the capital and discussed policy with the Litunga and his advisors through a representative. They also headed Makolo (singular: Likolo), which were groups of men that served as armies or labourers and corresponded to territories. They likely began as bands of followers, and were created and employed by members of the royal dynasty, though over time they all came under the control of the Litunga who also appointed their Indunas (often as a reward for service or bravery shown). At one point all women, men, and children were part of a Likolo; which one was determined by their father's or guardian's association, meaning they comprised patrilineal kin. They engaged in work that depended on their territories' resources, and could work on construction or raid for the Litunga if needed.^{[2]: 25–6, 35–8, 41–2}

Appointments to governmental positions generally came through the Lifunga institution, where the Litunga, or representatives of him, travelled throughout the kingdom and brought child prodigies back to the capital. The children (boys and girls) lived in royal or senior households and underwent apprenticeships, later gaining responsibilities and duties based on merit. Girls did domestic work in the royal household, though some became Anatambumu ("Mothers of the King") who comprised a council headed by the Queen Mother (Makoshi) which engaged in governing. In the late-19th century with the restoration, women were excluded from government and the institution was expanded to include labour, causing people to hide their children out of fear.^{[2]: 39–40}

People in the kingdom had to pay tribute to the Litunga in the form of part of their catch or harvest (called Mubingu).^[2]: 33

Ideology of kingship

Lozi tradition holds that members of the royal dynasty have divine ancestry due to them descending from Mbuyu, which is believed to imbue them with mali a silena (royalty) which determined eligibility for kingship. The Litunga underwent an elaborate installation ritual, which involved purification rituals before being presented to the public. Royal rituals and ceremonies included playing of the Maoma drums. The Litunga was bound to ritual seclusion, and spoke only through an intermediary. After death, the Litunga was believed to become more powerful and be able to affect peoples lives in the present. A group of families chose to live near where a deceased Litunga chose to be buried, and one person took on the position of Nomboti or Nameto. The Nomboti tended to the Litunga's grave, appeased him with sacrifices, and acted as an intermediary between him and the public. Sacrifices were placed on the Limbwata (an opening in the grave), and the deceased Litunga's spirit was consulted via the Nomboti for major policy decisions and the installation of a new monarch. Traditionally, fires were put out after a monarch's death, and only relit once the new monarch lights a fire.^{[2]: 30–3}

Economy

Trade

The communities of the Bulozi Floodplain and those of the forests relied upon each other for certain goods; from the forest communities, those of the Plain imported wood, canoes, bark to make rope, honey, and beeswax among others. The communities of the Plain exported to those of the forests cattle, milk, and fish.^[2]: 34

The Litunga was responsible for public infrastructure such as building mounds to save settlements from flooding or canals for drainage or transport.^[2]: 35

Society and culture

Further information: Lozi mythology

The origins of the name Lozi are uncertain, however some traditions attribute it to the founders of the ruling dynasty, and say it later spread to the dynasty's subjects. Other traditions say the people were called Aluyana, and that the Makololo termed them Malozi in the 19th century. Historian Mutumba Mainga considered the latter more likely.^[1]: 5

National hunts (Lisula) were held annually and led by the Litunga.^[2]: 38

Seasonal floods meant that settlements were built on termite mounds (mazulu) and artificial mounds (liuba), though people were sometimes forced into the forest at the height of flooding season.^[1]: 1

Lozi years were 13 months long, with a month's length determined by the moon's waxing and waning, and months grouped into seasons. A new year was accompanied by the start of agricultural work.^[1]: 6

List of rulers

The following is a list of rulers according to African States and Rulers 3rd ed. (2006).^[11]: 27

Ruler	Reign	Gravesite	Notes
Mboo (also "Mwana Silunda" or "Muyunda")	16th century	Imwambo[2]: 33	...
Inyambo	?
Yeta I	?
Ngalama	?
Yeta II	?
Ngombala	?	Kwandu[2]: 32
Yubya	?
Mwanawina I (also "Musanawina")	?
Mwananyanda (also "Musananyanda")	?–1780
Mulambwa	1780–1830
Silumelume and Mubukwanu	1830–1838		Joint rulers
Mubukwanu	1838–1841
Ima Siku	1841–1860
Sipopa and Njekwa	1860–1864		Joint regents
Sipopa	1864–August 1876		Njekwa was Ngambela (Prime Minister) until 1871
Mowa Mamili	August 1876–October 1876		Regent
Mwanawina II	October 1876–May 1878
Vacant	May 1878–August 1878
Lewanika (also "Lubosi")	August 1878–August 1884		1st reign, Silumbu was Ngambela
Tatila Akufuna	September 1884–July 1885		Usurper, Mataa was Ngambela
Vacant	July 1885–November 1885
Lewanika	November 1885–February 1916		2nd reign, last sovereign, Mwauluka was Ngambela until 1898
Mokamba	February 1916–March 1916		Regent
Yeta III (also "Litia")	March 1916–June 1945	Mulumbo[2]: 31
Shemakone Kalonga Wina	June 1945–June 1946		Regent (1st time)
Imwiko Lewanika (also "Imwiko I")	June 1946–June 1948
Shemakone Kalonga Wina	June 1048–August 1948		Regent (2nd time)
Mwanawina III	August 1948–November 1968
Hastings Noyoo	November 1968–December 1968		Regent
Lewanika II (also "Godwin Mbikusita")	December 1968–1977
Ilute (also "Yeta IV")	1977–July 2000
Lubosi Imwiko II	October 2000–present[12]

Notes

1. Also Lozi Empire, Luyana Kingdom, or Barotse Kingdom.
2. Litaba za Sicaba sa Malozi ("History of the Lozi Nation") was written by missionary Adolphe Jalla under "strict supervision" from Lewanika, and was first published in 1909 or 1910.^[3]: 212 Further editions were published in 1922, 1934, 1939, and 1951. The work served to make Lozi identity and royalism inseparable, and plays a central role in the contemporary independence movement.^{[4]: 156–8}
3. Mbuyu's gravesite is believed to be in Makono in Kalabo District.^[2]: 30
4. Graves of early dynasty members are located in Kalabo District.^[2]: 24
5. Mainga mentions an informant from Mongu District saying that "the newcomers won their following by their great generosity".^[2]: 23
6. Traditions say Mwanambinyi was accompanied by various officials, and several title-holders in Senanga District still attribute their history to Mwanambinyi.^[2]: 27
7. There is a group of trees in Mongu District called Matondo Mange ("Trees of Mange"), said to have been where Mange hunted.^[2]: 28
8. Lozi tradition says that the institution of kingship was borrowed from Ndundulu leader Isimwaa, although Ndundulu tradition says that after making an alliance, the Lozi took control of the polity.^[2]: 33
9. Imatongo continues to be treated similarly in contemporary Lozi society to other gravesites of Litungas.^[2]: 28
10. The Moama drums, which were used for royal events and during war, are said to have been captured by Ngalama from Mwanambinyi, who in turn took them from the Mbukushu.^[2]: 33

References

1. Mainga, Mutumba (1973). "Introduction: Bulozi". Bulozi under the Luyana Kings: Political Evolution and State Formation in Pre-Colonial Zambia. Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-64073-3.
2. Mainga, Mutumba (1973). "Founding of the Lozi State and emergence of a Luyana central kingship". Bulozi under the Luyana Kings: Political Evolution and State Formation in Pre-Colonial Zambia. Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-64073-3.
3. Mainga, Mutumba (1973). "Appendix". Bulozi under the Luyana Kings: Political Evolution and State Formation in Pre-Colonial Zambia. Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-64073-3.
4. Hogan, Jack; Macola, Giacomo (2015), "From Royalism to E-secessionism: Lozi Histories and Ethnic Politics in Zambia", in Davis, Caroline; Johnson, David (eds.), The Book in Africa: Critical Debates, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-1-137-40162-5, retrieved 2025-11-13
5. Mainga, Mutumba (1973). "Migration and settlement". Bulozi under the Luyana Kings: Political Evolution and State Formation in Pre-Colonial Zambia. Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-64073-3.
6. Fortes-Lima, Cesar A.; Burgarella, Concetta; Hammarén, Rickard; Eriksson, Anders; Vicente, Mário; Jolly, Cecile; Semo, Armando; Gunnink, Hilde; Pacchiarotti, Sara; Mundeke, Leon; Matonda, Igor; Muluwa, Joseph Koni; Coutros, Peter; Nyambe, Terry S.; Cikomola, Justin Cirhuza (2024). "The genetic legacy of the expansion of Bantu-speaking peoples in Africa". Nature. 625 (7995): 540–547. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06770-6. ISSN 1476-4687.
7. Phiri, Bizeck (2005). "Lozi Kingdom and the Kololo". In Shillington, Kevin (ed.). Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-45670-2.
8. Flint, Lawrence S. (2003). "State-Building in Central Southern Africa: Citizenship and Subjectivity in Barotseland and Caprivi". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 36 (2): 393–428. doi:10.2307/3559389. ISSN 0361-7882.
9. Hogan, Jack (2016), "Lozi Empire", The Encyclopedia of Empire, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 1–2, doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe053, ISBN 978-1-118-45507-4, retrieved 2025-11-13
10. Prins, Gwyn (1980). "Contexts". The Hidden Hippopotamus: Reappraisal in African History: The Early Colonial Experience in Western Zambia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22915-9.
11. Stewart, John (2006). "Barotseland". African States and Rulers (3rd ed.). McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-2562-4.
12. "Zambia : Mongu gears up for silver jubilee celebration of King Lubosi Imwiko II". 2025-10-15. Retrieved 2025-11-12.