Draft:African-American history in Springfield, Massachusetts
African-American people have lived in Springfield, Massachusetts since its inception in 1636. Early African-American residents were primarily indentured servants or enslaved; however, free African-Americans lived in the city as early as the 1680s, and beginning in the 1790s the city was home to a number of African-Americans who had fled enslavement in the neighboring states of Connecticut and New York.
In the decades prior to the civil war, the city was a center for abolitionist activity. However, by the early 20th century, employment opportunities for African-American residents were largely limited to menial labor. Although segregation was not official policy in the city, unofficial housing and employment discrimination led to a de facto segregated city by the middle of the century.
Demographic history
[edit]In the 18th century, the enslaved population in Springfield remained comparatively small compared to other states. By mid-century, around 40 enslaved people lived in Springfield, most of whom were owned by a small group of affluent people.[1]: 6
At the time of the first federal census in 1795, 13 of Springfield's 1,574 residents were black. Of the 13, only two lived in their own households; the remainder lived in white households. This proportion would rapidly change in the following 15 years.[2] By 1810, 41 of Springfield's 47 black residents lived in their own households.[2]
In the second half of the 19th century into the early 20th century, Springfield's African-American population kept pace with overall population growth, generally accounting for 2% of the city's population. Black residents lived across the city.[2]
In 1900, Springfield's African-American community numbered 1,021.[3] By 1910, black residents were largely concentrated in what are now the McKnight and Old Hill neighborhoods, Metro Center, and the South End.[2] A 1922 report found that of the city's 3,069 African-American residents, 62% were born in the South (18% in Georgia specifically), 32% were born in the North or West, and 4% were born outside the country.[2]
By 1940, the African-American population had increased to 3,212, as a result of the Great Migration.[3] Black residents were concentrated in the North End and the McKnight and Old Hill neighborhoods, comprising 80% of the city's Black population.[2] Between 1950 and 1960, the Black population doubled to 13,086 Black residents, but the city remained highly racially segregated.[2]
17th - 18th centuries
[edit]The first recorded African-American residents of Springfield were a man named Tom and an unnamed woman, both of whom were enslaved by John Pynchon, son of Springfield founder William Pynchon.[1]: 5 The woman later became pregnant by a white settler; although the man left town unscathed, she was "whipped and fined".[1]: 6
In 1650, records note that William Pynchon had a black indentured servant named Peter Swinck. Swinck married in 1660, and was later granted land in what would become West Springfield and Agawam, and by 1685 they owned 55 acres across three plots within Springfield.[4]: 61
In 1680, an enslaved man named Roco was given 15 lashes for having sex with a white woman, whom he said had "tempted him".[1]: 6 By 1685, Roco owned 60 acres in the town, although he was still legally enslaved by William Pynchon. He was able to buy his and his wife, Sue's, freedom from Pynchon in 1695.[4]: 61
In 1681, a man named Jack who had escaped from slavery in Wethersfield, Connecticut came to Springfield. He was imprisoned in the settlement for at least a year.[1]: 6
During the American Revolutionary War, Springfield served as a muster point for American militias, some of whom allowed African-American enlistees. At least 45 African-American men from what is now Hampden County served in the American forces during the war. Following the war, some of these men returned to Springfield to settle down.[4]: 66-67
19th century
[edit]Following Massachusetts' outlawing of slavery in 1791, the state became a haven for escaped slaves from neighboring states (particularly Connecticut and New York), many of whom came to Springfield.[1]: 7 [4]: 76 However, the city still retained discriminatory attitudes; for instance, although the 18th century brought a number of industrial jobs to Springfield, records indicate that most African-American residents were relegated to menial labor.[1]: 8
The early 1800s saw the development of Hayti, a majority-black neighborhood between State Street and Bay Road in what is now the Winchester Square neighborhood.[1]: 8 The land was seen as undesireable, having sandy soil and being used by a slaughterhouse and as a place to bury horses.[2]
In 1808, Jenny Cumfry Williams, who had escaped from slavery in New York in the early 1800s, was found by the man who had legal ownership of her. A group of 19 Springfield residents, among them Bezaleel Howard, raised $100 to buy her freedom.[1]: 8
In the 1810s, Rev. Samuel Osgood, a white abolitionist,[1]: 9 became the minister of Springfield's First Church. He went on to officiate many African-American marriages, and harbored fugitive slaves traveling on the Underground Railroad.[4]: 77 Other white conductors on the Underground Railroad were Ethan Chapin, who owned the Massasoit House hotel in downtown Springfield,[5] and Jerre and Phoebe Warriner, owners of Springfield's U.S. Hotel. The Warriners also hired escapees wanting to stay in Springfield as hotel staff.[4]: 78
In the late 1820s and early 1830s, an African-American militia headed by Aaron Nazro operated in Springfield.[4]: 76
The African-American Mason family of Monson began to move to Springfield starting in the 1830s.[4]: 75
The first Black church in Springfield, the Sanford Street Church (also called the Free Church, Zion Methodist, and St. John's Congregational) was founded in 1844.[1]: 13 [4]: 76
In 1846, abolitionist John Brown moved to Springfield, in part due to his wool business. While living in the city, he formed relationships with many black community members, including minister Eli Baptist. In 1847, Brown met Frederick Douglass for the first time in Springfield.[1]: 9
Ruth Cox Adams, the adopted sister of Frederick Douglass, moved to Springfield in 1848 following her marriage to Perry Frank Adams, a Springfield farmer.
By 1850, 271 black people lived in Springfield, 150 of whom were free.[1]: 10 By 1855, the population had increased to 392.[4]: 76 The 1850s also saw African Americans in Springfield connecting with other urban African-American communities in nearby communities such as Hartford, Northampton, Pittsfield, Westfield, and Worcester. New residents also arrived from other eastern cities such as Baltimore, D.C., New York City, and Philadelphia.[4]: 74 This influx in community members resulted in a number of new barber shops, laundry businesses, and saloons.[4]: 75
In 1855, school segregation in the state was outlawed.[2]
In 1857, members of the black community hid John Brown while he was hiding from United States officers.[1]: 10
(1866 Baptist and Thomas Thomas)
A second Black church, Pilgrim Baptist (later Third Baptist Church) was founded in 1871 with 16 members.[1]: 13
Primus P. Mason (1817-) was a free black man from Monson. He became quite wealthy through pig farming, and became a major property owner and investor in Haiti, the underdeveloped neighborhood near the Springfield Armory.[1]: 7,9
20th century
[edit]In 1905, African-American minister Rev. William N. DeBerry published a report on the city's Black residents, based on interviews he conducted. In the report, he described the majority-Black neighborhood in the South End as "the most undesirable tenement section of the whole city,” saying “there are negro homes, the miserable plights of which an outsider would never suspect possible in a city like Springfield. Many of these people are forced to live in this section under such conditions because of their inability to secure tenements in more desirable locations". DeBerry identified lack of employment opportunities as the largest barrier to the city's Black community, finding that 86% of Black men and 84% of Black women were menial laborers, 83% of whom were domestic servants.[2] By contrast, 30% of non-Black employed women were domestic servants.[2]
DeBerry also identified housing descrimination as a major issue.[2] Although there was not official housing segregation in the city, landlords and realtors did not readily sell to African-Americans except in the area around Willow and Cross Street.[3] DeBerry found that landlords often would not rent to African-American tenants unless the previous tenants had also been African-American.[2]
DeBerry also noted that although the city's schools were de jure integrated, Black students scored lower than their white peers.[2]
The 1910s saw the founding of a Springfield chapter of the NAACP, and 1913 saw the founding of the Dunbar Community League (now the Urban League of Springfield) by John N. DeBerry, a minister at St. John's Congregational church. The league led to multiple projects aimed towards the African-American community, including a youth club, adult education programs, and Camp Atwater.[3]
Labor demands during World War I allowed some African-American men to escape menial work for "skilled and ordinary employment", at least for a time, with only 70% of Black men being in menial work by 1922, as opposed to 86% in 1905. Black women's employment in menial work remained largely the same as 1905, at 82%. Housing discrimination remained an issue for Black tenants.[2] These gains were lost during the Great Depression.[2]
By the 1930s, some African-American residents did make a living as barbers, carpenters, machinists, and masons.[3]
World War II - 1950s
[edit]In 1939, the Springfield Public Schools implemented the "Springfield Plan", a curriculum which "promoted the social equality of all races, emphasized studying Black history, and...asked students to examine and discuss their own prejudices". It was received positively with the onset of World War II, being toted as "an example of American democracy and tolerance as a contrast to the extremes of fascism". However, the curriculum was dropped after the war ended.[2]
By 1940, there were at least 36 Black-owned small businesses in the city, and the number of Black professionals had somewhat increased. Three Black lawyers lived in Springfield, one of whom, J. Clifford Clarkson, served on the City Council.[2]
During World War II, some African-American workers were hired by the Springfield Armory, which needed more labor due to its increased production output. The skills earned by these workers allowed them to obtain other skilled work following the war.[3]
In 1950, local civil rights activist criticized the Springfield Housing Authority for their policy of "limited segregation". The issue was officially solved in May 1950, when Massachusetts Governor Paul A. Dever outlawed segregation in public housing within the state. However, unofficial discriminatory practices continued to limit where Black residents were able to rent or buy.[2] Majority-Black neighborhoods became vulnerable to redevelopment and slum clearance in the 1950s and 1960s, particularly with the expansion of highway construction beside the Connecticut River.[2]
1960s - 1970s
[edit]In 1960, plans were made to clear much of the North End to allow for highway construction. Many of the area's Black residents were renters, meaning they were not compensated when the land was sold to the city.[2]
By the 1960s, Springfield's schools remained de facto segregated. Following the push to desegregate Boston's schools, businesswoman Mary Barksdale filed suit against the Springfield School Committee in January 1965. The state court agreed with Barksdale, ordering the city to desegregate its schools; however, the decision was declared unconstitutional on July 13, 1965, following an appeal.[6]
A few days after the decision was declared unconstitutional, a race riot emerged in the city after a black man was beaten outside of a nightclub. For the remainder of the summer, the African-American community staged a number of protests, both sit-ins and marches, in the city, all calling for an investigation into police violence against African-Americans. This investigation did not come to fruition, but the events did push city officials to reconsider the issue of school segregation. The city government pursued a program of desegregation over the following few years, using redistricting, new school construction, and the busing of students to different schools.[6]
African-American muralist Nelson Stevens, originally from New York City, began painting murals in Springfield in 1971.
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Kazini, Imani (1977). "Black Springfield: A Historical Study". Contributions in Black Studies. 1.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u https://www.pvpc.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Red-Lines-Black-Neighborhoods-2024-05-09.pdf.
{{cite web}}: Missing or empty|title=(help) - ^ a b c d e f "The Great Migration". ourpluralhistory.stcc.edu. Retrieved 2024-03-06.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Carvalho, Joseph III (2012). "Uncovering the Stories of Black Families in Springfield and Hampden County, Massachusetts: 1650–1865" (PDF). Historical Journal of Massachusetts. 40 (1).
- ^ Days, Wesley (2024-02-27). "Experts discuss Springfield's anti-slavery history and the Underground Railroad". www.westernmassnews.com. Retrieved 2024-03-04.
- ^ a b "The Civil Rights Movement in Springfield". Our Plural History. Springfield Technical Community College. Retrieved 2024-03-04.