Bumin Qaghan

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Not to be confused with Yami Qaghan or Illig Qaghan.
Bumin Qaghan
Modern rendering of Bumin Khagan as one of the founders of the 16 Great Turkic Empires, part of the Turkish: Türklük Anıtı, lit. 'Monument to Turkishness' in Pınarbaşı, Kayseri
Qaghan of the First Turkic Khaganate
Reign552
Coronation552 in Altai Mountains[1]
SuccessorIssik Qaghan
BornAshina Tumen (阿史那土門)
Died552
Spouse
(551)
Issue
Regnal name
Illig Qaghan (伊利可汗)
HouseAshina
FatherAshina Tuwu
ReligionTengrism

Bumin Qaghan (Old Turkic: 𐰉𐰆𐰢𐰣:𐰴𐰍𐰣, romanized: Bumïn qaɣan[2], died 552 AD) was the founder of the First Turkic Khaganate. His regnal title was Illig Qaghan (Chinese: 伊利可汗, romanized: Yīlì Kèhán, Wade–Giles: i-li k'o-han). He was the eldest son of Ashina Tuwu (吐務 / 吐务).[3] He was the chieftain of the Turks under the sovereignty of the Rouran Khaganate.[4][5][6][7] He is also mentioned as Tumen (土門, 吐門, commander of ten thousand[8]) of the Rouran Khaganate.[9]

Name

[edit]

The name Tumen (Early Middle Chinese: 土門, romanized: thɔ'-mən and Late Middle Chinese: 土門, romanized: thuə'mun) found in Chinese historical records (such as the Book of Zhou and Book of Sui) and Bumin Qaghan found in Old Turkic inscriptions are considered to refer to the same person: the founder of the Turkic Khaganate. However, the two names do not match phonetically. Turcologist Volker Rybatzki suggested that "Bumin" can be analyzed from an Iranian linguistic perspective, splitting it into the root bum- and the suffix -in. The suffix -in often appears in Sogdian to indicate a nickname or patronymic. The root bum- can be compared to Old Sanskrit bhūmi ("earth, ground, soil, land"), Old Persian būmī- ("earth"), and Sogdian ßωmh ("earth, land, world").[10]

According to turcologist Rui Chuanming, tu (土) means "earth, soil, territory," and men (門) means "entrance, faction, clan." Given the strong influence of Sogdian culture on the First Turkic Khaganate, the meaning of the name "Bumin" may have been introduced to China by Sogdians, where the Chinese then translated it into "Tu-men"—a name that captures both the sound (approximated) and the meaning, according to his theory.[11] He suggested that "Bumin" might have been an alternative title for Tumen that was not recorded by Chinese historians.[11]

Other theories suggest "Tumen" is a transliteration of the Turkic word for "ten thousand" (tümen). Sui and Tang historian Cen Zhongmian believed "Bumin" originated from the Sanskrit bhuman ("vast, wealthy").[12]

Early life and reign

[edit]

According to the History of the Northern Dynasties and the Zizhi Tongjian, in 545 Tumen's tribe started to rise and frequently invaded the western frontier of Wei. The chancellor of Western Wei, Yuwen Tai, sent An Nuopanto (安諾盤陀, Nanai-Banda, a Sogdian from Bukhara[13]) as an emissary to the Göktürk chieftain Tumen, in an attempt to establish a commercial relationship.[14][15] In 546, Tumen paid tribute to the Western Wei state.[15][16] Tumen later put down a revolt of the Tiele tribes, accepting the surrender of over 50,000 households against the Rouran Khaganate, their overlords.[15]

Following this, Tumen felt entitled to request of the Rouran a princess to be his wife. The Rouran khagan, Yujiulü Anagui, sent a message refusing this request and adding: "You are my blacksmith slave. How dare you utter these words?" Bumin got angry, killed Anagui's emissary, and severed relations with the Rouran Khaganate.[14][17][18][19] Anagui's "blacksmith" (Chinese: 鍛奴, romanized: duànnú) insult was recorded in Chinese chronicles. Some sources state that members of the Turks did serve as blacksmiths for the Rouran elite,[4][5][6][7] and that "blacksmith slavery" may refer to a kind of vassalage that prevailed in Rouran society.[20] Nevertheless, after this incident Bumin emerged as the leader of the revolt against the Rouran.

Gokturk khaganate.

In 551, Bumin requested a Western Wei princess for marriage. Yuwen Tai permitted it and sent Princess Changle of Western Wei to Bumin in July or August 551.[14][17][18] In the same year Emperor Wen of Western Wei died, and Bumin sent a mission and gave two hundred horses.[14][17]

The Book of Zhou does not explicitly date revolt of the Tiele. Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian places it in 551, but historian Cen Zhongmian argued this dating is incorrect. According to him, since Tumen subsequently requested marriages from both Rouran and Western Wei, the defeat of the Tiele could not have happened as late as 551.[21] Scholars Xue Zongzheng and Wu Yugui agree, with Xue further speculating the event occurred in 550 or earlier.[22][23]

The beginning of formal diplomatic relations with China propped up Bumin's authority among the Turks. He eventually united the local Turkic tribes and ended their subservience to the Rouran. In February or March 552 Bumin's army defeated Anagui's forces at the north of Huaihuang and then Anagui committed suicide.[17] With their defeat Bumin proclaimed himself Illig Qaghan and made his wife qaghatun.[17] Marcel Erdal compared "Illig" to ilkhan (i.e. ruler of people) in Old Turkic.[24] Rybatzki instead translated this title as "qaghan who has a land".[10] According to the Bilge Qaghan's memorial complex and the Kul Tigin's memorial complex, Bumin and Istemi ruled people by Turkic laws and they developed them.[2][25]

Death and family

[edit]
Contemporary depiction of the encounter in a Turkic yurt of the Sogdian trader An Jia (left) and a Turkic Chieftain (right). 579 CE, Tomb of An Jia, Xi’an, China.

Bumin died within several months of proclaiming himself Illig Qaghan.[26] Xue Zongzheng believes the cause of death was injuries sustained during the war with the Rouran.[22] He had a younger brother called Istämi who ruled westernpost portions of the qaghanate.[27]

Wives and children:

  • Unnamed Turkic khatun(s)
    • Issik Qaghan (r. 552–553)
    • Muqan Qaghan (r. 553–572)
    • Taspar Qaghan (however Baatar Urgunbuyan claims Princess Changle of Western Wei was his mother)[28]
    • Kutlug[29] (Chinese: 阿史那庫頭, romanized: Āshǐnà Kùtóu) appointed by Muqan Qaghan to be the lesser khagan of the Eastern Turkic Empire with title Ditou Qaghan (地頭可汗) [30]
    • Mahan Tegin (d. 581) — lesser khagan appointed by Taspar Qaghan[31]
    • Rudan Qaghan (Chinese: 褥但可汗) — he is defined almost entirely by his relationship to others rather than his own actions. Might be the brother poisoned by Northern Qi in the Baoding era (561–565).[32]
      • Böri Qaghan (步離可汗) - Lesser khagan of west appointed by Taspar Qaghan[33]

Genetics

[edit]

A complete genetic analysis of Empress Ashina (551–582), Bumin Qaghan' granddaughter through his son Muqan Qaghan, by Xiaoming Yang et al. in 2023 , found nearly exclusively Ancient Northeast Asian ancestry (97,7%) next to minor West-Eurasian components (2,7%), and no Chinese ("Yellow River") admixture. This supports the Northeast Asian origin of the Ashina tribe and the Göktürk Khanate.[34] According to the authors, these findings "once again validates a cultural diffusion model over a demic diffusion model for the spread of Turkic languages" and refutes "the western Eurasian origin and multiple origin hypotheses" in favor of an East Asian origin for the Türks.[35]

Legacy

[edit]

The Tariat Inscriptions from the Uyghur Khaganate period mention a certain Bumin Qaghan,[36] but due to severe damage to the stone face, it cannot be confirmed if this Bumin Qaghan is indeed him.[37] The Ongin Inscription from the Second Khaganate period mentions a certain Yamï Qağan (Old Turkic: 𐰖𐰢𐰃:𐰴𐰍𐰣, romanized: Yamï qaɣan) who some believe may be Bumin Qaghan, though this interpretation remains controversial. Several scholars, including early researchers Wilhelm Radloff and Josef Marquart, as well as contemporary scholar Takashi Ōsawa, have identified this figure as Bumin Qaghan, suggesting "Yama" is a variant reference to the founder of the khaganate.[38][39][40] However, this identification remains a subject of academic debate and is not universally accepted; scholars such as Gerard Clauson and Talat Tekin have challenged this reading,[41][42] and Chinese researchers Geng Shimin and Rui Chuanming note that the interpretation of the text is still controversial.[43][44]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Bauer, Susan Wise (2010). The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 238. ISBN 978-0-393-05975-5.
  2. ^ a b "Kultegin's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG".
  3. ^ Ouyang, Xiu. New Book of Tang (in Chinese). Vol. 215A.
  4. ^ a b Ma, Zhangshou (1957). 突厥人和突厥汗國 [Turks and the Turkic Qaghanate] (in Chinese). SPPH. pp. 10–11.
  5. ^ a b Chen, Fengxiang; Yu, Yingshi (2002). 中國通史 [General History of China] (in Chinese). Wunan Book Publishing. p. 155. ISBN 978-957-11-2881-8.
  6. ^ a b Gao, Yang (1991). "The Origin of the Turks and the Turkish Khanate". X. Türk Tarih Kongresi: Ankara 22 - 26 Eylül 1986, Kongreye Sunulan Bildiriler [10th Turkish History Congress: Ankara, 22-26 September 1986, Papers Presented to the Congress]. Vol. 5. Turkish Historical Society. p. 731. ISBN 9789751604033.
  7. ^ a b Oğuz, Burhan (1976). Türkiye halkının kültür kökenleri: Giriş, beslenme teknikleri [Cultural roots of the Turkish people: Introduction, nutritional techniques] (in Turkish). İstanbul Matbaası. p. 147. ISBN 978-975-8586-22-6.
  8. ^ "Tumen" is used for expressing 10,000 and "Bum" is used for expressing 100,000 in Secret History of the Mongols, Larry Moses, "Legend by the numbers: The Symbolism of Numbers in the 'Secret History of the Mongols'", Asian folklore studies, Vol. 55-56, Nanzan University Institute of Anthropology, 1996, p. 95.
  9. ^ Beckwith, Christopher I. (16 March 2009). Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. pp. 387, 390. ISBN 978-0691135892. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
  10. ^ a b Rybatzki, Volker (2000). "Titles of Türk and Uigur Rulers in the Old Turkic Inscriptions". Central Asiatic Journal. 44 (2): 205–292. ISSN 0008-9192.
  11. ^ a b Rui 2017, p. 204.
  12. ^ Cen 1958, p. 892.
  13. ^ Rong, Xinjiang (2006). "有關北周同州薩保安伽墓的幾個問題" [Several questions concerning the tomb of Sabao Anjia in Tongzhou, Northern Zhou Dynasty]. In Zhang, Qingjie (ed.). 世紀的北中國與歐亞大陸 [Northern China and Eurasia in the 21st Century] (in Chinese). Beijing: China Science Publishing & Media. pp. 128–139.
  14. ^ a b c d Li, Yanshou. History of the Northern Dynasties (in Chinese). Vol. 99.
  15. ^ a b c Sima, Quang. Zizhi Tongjian (in Chinese). Vol. 159.
  16. ^ Cen 1958, p. 499-500.
  17. ^ a b c d e Linghu, Defen. Book of Zhou (in Chinese). Vol. 50.
  18. ^ a b Sima, Quang. Zizhi Tongjian (in Chinese). Vol. 164.
  19. ^ Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009). Empires of the Silk Road: a history of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the present. Princeton (N.J.): Princeton University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2.
  20. ^ Perry, John Curtis; Smith, Bardwell Leith (1976). Essays on Tʻang Society: The Interplay of Social, Political and Economic Forces. Brill Archive. p. 65. ISBN 978-90-04-04761-7.
  21. ^ Cen 1958, p. 500.
  22. ^ a b Xue, Zhongzheng (1992). 突厥史 [A History of Turks] (in Chinese). Beijing: Chinese Social Sciences Press. p. 88.
  23. ^ Wu, Yugui (2017). 突厥汗國與隋唐關係史研究 [A Study on the Relationship between the Turkic Khaganate and the Sui and Tang Dynasties] (in Chinese) (1st ed.). Beijing: Commercial Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-7-100-13887-1.
  24. ^ Erdal, Marcel. "Die türkisch-mongolischen Titel elxan und elči". Altaica Berolinensia. Asiatische Forschungen (126). Wiesbaden: 81–99.
  25. ^ "Bilge kagan's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG".
  26. ^ History of Civilizations of Central Asia. UNESCO. 2006. p. 327. ISBN 978-9231032110.
  27. ^ Michalis N. Michael; Matthias Kappler; Eftihios Gavriel (2009). Archivum Ottomanicum. Mouton. pp. 68, 69. ISBN 9783447058995.
  28. ^ Urgunbuyan, Baatar (28 August 2023). "Princesses of the Central Plains Married into the Turkish Khaganate". Mongolian Diaspora. Journal of Mongolian History and Culture. 3 (1): 39. doi:10.1515/modi-2023-2006. Taspar (他钵, 佗钵), born from King Tumen and Queen Chanle became the fourth Khan of the Turkish Khaganate.
  29. ^ Taşağıl, Ahmet (1995). Gök-Türkler [Göktürks] (in Turkish). Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi. p. 23. ISBN 978-975-16-1631-9.
  30. ^ Linghu, Defen. Book of Zhou (in Chinese). Vol. 33.
  31. ^ Alyılmaz, Cengiz (2003). "Bugut Yazıtı ve Anıt Mezar Külliyesi Üzerine" [On the Bugut Inscription and the Mausoleum Complex]. Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi. 1 (13): 11–21.
  32. ^ Linghu, Defen. Book of Zhou (in Chinese). Vol. 50.
  33. ^ Wei, Zheng. Book of Sui (in Chinese). Vol. 99.
  34. ^ Yang, Xiaomin (2023). "Ancient Genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Göktürk Khanate". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 61 (6): 1056–1064. doi:10.1111/jse.12938. S2CID 255690237. In the principal component analysis (PCA) (Figs. 1B, S3), the Ashina individual clustered with modern Tungusic and Mongolic speakers, ancient populations from Northeast Asia and eastern Mongolia Plateau, and especially with the Northeast Asian hunter‐gatherers previously referred to as "Ancient Northeast Asian" (ANA), that is, DevilsCave_N, Mongolia_N_North, Boisman_MN, AR_EN (Jeong et al., 2020; Ning et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2021), as well as post‐Iron Age Eastern Steppe nomadic people including Xianbei, Rouran, Khitan, and part of the Mongol population. The shared genetic similarity between Ashina and Northeast Eurasians, especially ANA, was also evident in outgroup‐f3 statistics (Fig. S5A).
  35. ^ Yang, Xiaomin; Meng, Hailiang; Zhang, Jianlin; Yu, Yao; Allen, Edward; Xia, Ziyang; Zhu, Kongyang; Du, Panxin; Ren, Xiaoying; Xiong, Jianxue; Lu, Xiaoyu; Ding, Yi; Han, Sheng; Liu, Weipeng; Jin, Li (2023-01-09). "Ancient Genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Göktürk Khanate". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 61 (6): 1056–1064. doi:10.1111/jse.12938. ISSN 1674-4918. S2CID 255690237.
  36. ^ "Inscription El etmish Bilge kagan (Tariat // Terh)". bitig.kz. Retrieved 2025-11-20.
  37. ^ Geng 2005, p. 212.
  38. ^ Ōsawa, Takashi (2011). "Revisiting the Ongi inscription of Mongolia from the Second Turkic Qaγanate on the basis of rubbings by G. J. Ramstedt" (PDF). Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne. 93: 176–177.
  39. ^ Radloff, Wilhelm (1895). Die alttürkischen Inschriften der Mongolei [The Old Turkic Inscriptions of Mongolia] (in German). St. Petersburg: Imp. Akademii Nauka. p. 253.
  40. ^ Marquart, Josef (1898). Die Chronologie der Alttürkischen Inschriften [The Chronology of the Old Turkic Inscriptions] (in German). Leipzig: Dieterich'sche verlags. p. 39.
  41. ^ Clauson, Gerard (1957). "The Ongin Inscription". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (3): 184.
  42. ^ Tekin, Talat (1968). A Grammar of Orkhon Turkic. Bloomington: Indiana University. p. 291.
  43. ^ Geng 2005, p. 186-187.
  44. ^ Rui 2017, p. 259.

Sources

[edit]
  • Cen, Zhongmian (1958). 突厥集史 [A Collection of History of the Turks] (in Chinese). Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company.
  • Geng, Shimin (2005). 古代突厥文碑銘研究 [A Study of Ancient Turkic Inscriptions] (in Chinese). Beijing: Minzu University of China.
  • Rui, Chuanming (2017). 古突厥碑銘研究 [Research on Old Turkic Inscriptions] (in Chinese) (Revised ed.). Beijing: The Commercial Press.
Bumin Qaghan
Preceded by
none
 Qaghan of the First Turkic Khaganate
552 		Succeeded by