Arabic coffee

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This article is about methods of preparation of a drink. For the species of coffee plant, see Coffea arabica.
Arabic coffee
A dallah, a traditional Arabic coffee pot, pictured with cups and unground coffee beans
Alternative namesQahwah arabiyya
TypeCoffea arabica
CourseDrink
Place of originMokha
Region or stateYemen
Associated cuisineArab cuisine
Invented15th century
Serving temperatureHot
Main ingredientsground coffee and water
Ingredients generally usedcardamom
  •   Media: Arabic coffee

Arabic coffee, known in Arabic as qahwa (Arabic: قهوة), is a version of the brewed coffee of Coffea arabica beans. Most Arab countries throughout the Middle East have developed distinct methods for brewing and preparing coffee. Cardamom[1] is an often-added spice,[2] but it can alternatively be served plain or with sugar.

There are several different styles to brewing the coffee depending on the preference of the drinker. Some methods keep the coffee light whereas others can make it dark. Arabic coffee is bitter, and typically no sugar is added. It is typically brewed in a dallah or cezve, and served in a small cup that is adorned with a decorative pattern, known as a finjān. Culturally, Arabic coffee is served during family gatherings or when receiving guests.

Arabic coffee originated in Greater Yemen, beginning in the port city of Mokha in Yemen[3] and eventually travelling to Mecca in Hejaz, Egypt, the Levant, and then, in the mid-16th century, to Turkey and from there to Europe[4] where coffee eventually became popular as well.[5] Arabic coffee is an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Arab states confirmed by UNESCO.[6] Every year on March 3, Yemenis celebrate the "Yemeni Coffee Day," a national festival to encourage coffee cultivation.[7]

Etymology

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Arab woman (coffee bearer) in Cairo, Egypt, by John Frederick Lewis, 1857

The word "coffee" entered the English language in 1582 via the Dutch koffie,[8] borrowed from the Ottoman Turkish kahve, in turn borrowed from the Arabic قَهْوَة (qahwa, “coffee, a brew”).[9] The word qahwah may have originally referred to the drink's reputation as an appetite suppressant from the word qahiya (Arabic: قَهِيَ, romanized: qahiya, lit. 'to lack hunger').[10][11] The name qahwah is not used for the berry or plant (the products of the region), which are known in Arabic as bunn. Semitic had a root qhh "dark color", which became a natural designation for the beverage. According to this analysis, the feminine form qahwah (also meaning "dark in color, dull(ing), dry, sour") also had the meaning of wine, which was also often dark in color.[10]

History

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The earliest credible evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century (but believed to be much earlier) from Yemen as coffee was in use in Yemen's Sufi monasteries.[5] Sufis used it to keep themselves alert during their nighttime devotions. A translation of Al-Jaziri's manuscript[12] traces the spread of coffee from Arabia Felix (the present day Yemen) northward to Mecca and Medina, and then to the larger cities of Cairo, Damascus, Baghdad, and Constantinople. In 1511, it was forbidden for its stimulating effect by conservative, orthodox imams at a theological court in Mecca.[13] However, these bans were to be overturned in 1524 by an order of the Ottoman Turkish Sultan Suleiman I, with Grand Mufti Mehmet Ebussuud el-İmadi issuing a fatwa allowing the consumption of coffee.[14] In Cairo, Egypt, a similar ban was instituted in 1532, and the coffeehouses and warehouses containing coffee beans were sacked.[15]

Preparation

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Dallahs

Arabic coffee is made from lightly to heavily roasted Arabica beans (165 to 210 °C (329 to 410 °F)) mixed with cardamom, and sometimes flavored with cloves or saffron.[16][17] It is a traditional beverage in Arab culture and is usually prepared at home or for special occasions. The beans are roasted, ground, brewed, and served in front of guests.[18]

The coffee is boiled but not filtered, producing a strong, concentrated drink. It is generally unsweetened (qahwah saada), though sugar may be added during preparation or serving. To balance the bitterness, it is often accompanied by dates, dried or candied fruit, nuts, or other sweets.[19]

Arabic coffee is served in small, handleless cups called finjān.

Arabian Peninsula

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What is known as "Arabic Coffee" in the Arabian Peninsula is typically ground to a medium consistency and brewed and served from a dallah. It is almost always accompanied by dates and offered as a gesture of hospitality. In restaurants, it may be served by waiters called qahwaji.

Light roasting is common in Saudi Arabia, especially in the Najd and Hejaz regions, giving the coffee a golden or blonde color. Spices such as saffron, cardamom, cloves, and cinnamon may be added, with cardamom being the most essential.

In North Arabia, a darker variation known as qahwah shamāliyya (literally "Northern coffee") is prepared by roasting the beans for a longer time.[20][21] It is also known as Bedouin coffee in Jordan.

Hejazi/Najdi golden coffee (left), Levantine black coffee (right).

Levant

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In the Levant, what is known as "Arabic coffee" is prepared in a style similar to Turkish coffee, but spiced with cardamom and usually unsweetened.[22] It is prepared in a long-handled pot called a "rakwa" (cezve), and poured into decorated handleless cups called finjān.[23] The finjān typically holds 60–90 ml (2–3 fl oz). It is traditionally strong and black, made from a blend of blonde and dark beans ground into a fine powder.[24]

Rakwa, also called kanaka or jezwah.

A special variant, known as qahwah sādah (“plain coffee”) or qahwah murra (“bitter coffee”) is especially popular among Bedouins and many other Arabs in the Levant. This strong, bitter coffee is a symbol of hospitality. It is typically brewed in a dallah for a long period to extract a rich, intense flavor, using coarsely ground beans and whole cardamom seeds. In some households, a khameerat al-qahwa, a type of fermented coffee “starter,” is added to enhance the depth and aroma.[25] Serving this coffee is often ceremonial: the host or his eldest son moves clockwise among the guests, pouring coffee into small cups according to age and status. Traditionally, it is considered polite to accept three cups, with the final one concluded by saying daymen (“always”), meaning “may you always have the means to serve coffee.”[26]

Bedouin from a beehive village in Aleppo, Syria, drinking traditional murra (bitter) coffee, 1930

It is often said humorously that a Lebanese person who does not drink coffee risks “losing their nationality.”[23]

In Jordan, black, cardamom-flavored qahwah sādah (often called “welcome coffee”) remains a traditional sign of respect and an important part of hospitality. Serving coffee is central to Jordanian social life and is a customary way to honor guests.[27]

Morocco

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While the national drink of Morocco is gunpowder green tea brewed with fresh mint and espresso is very popular, Arabic coffee is also widely consumed, especially on formal occasions. It is often made with the purpose of conducting a business deal and welcoming someone into one's home for the first time, and frequently served at weddings and on important occasions.

Cultivation

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A maqhah in Ottoman Jerusalem in 1858

Much of the popularization of coffee is due to its cultivation in the Arab world, beginning in what is now Yemen, by Sufi monks in the 15th century.[28] Through thousands of Arabs pilgrimaging to Mecca, the enjoyment and harvesting of coffee, or the "wine of Araby" spread to other Arab countries (e.g. Egypt, Syria) and eventually to a majority of the world through the 16th century.

Coffee, in addition to being essential in the home, became a major part of social life.[29] Coffeehouses, qahwa قَهوة in Modern Standard Arabic, became "Schools of the Wise" as they developed into places of intellectual discussion, in addition to centers of relaxation and comradery.[30]

Coffeehouse

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Coffeehouse in Cairo, c. 18th

Coffeehouse culture began in the Arab world, and eventually spread to other areas of the world and blended with the local culture.[31] Traditional Arab coffeehouses are places where mostly men meet to socialize over games, coffee, and water pipes (shisha or argille). Depending on where the coffeehouse is, its specialty differs. In Maghreb, green tea is served with mint or coffee is served Arab and/or European style. Arabic coffee, or Turkish coffee, is made in Egypt and the Levant countries. Arabic coffee is a very small amount of dark coffee boiled in a pot and presented in a demitasse cup. Particularly in Egypt, coffee is served mazbuuta, which means the amount of sugar will be "just right", about one teaspoon per cup. However, in the Arabian Peninsula, Arabic coffee is roasted in such a way that the coffee is almost clear. In all of the Arab world, it is traditional for the host to refill the guest's cup until politely signaled that the guest is finished.[29]

Served

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An Arab man pours the traditional cup of Arabic coffee from a dallah in the Levant.

Arabic coffee is usually served just a few centiliters at a time.[16] Arabic coffee is served following formal etiquette for the host, the visitor, and the server. The server is required to hold the Dallah with the palm of his right hand positioned at the top, while using the left hand to hold the cup. In accordance with guest etiquette, the cup should be received and returned to the server by using the right hand. Priority is given to the oldest or most significant guest.[32] The guest drinks it and if he wishes, he will gesture to the waiter not to pour any more. Otherwise, the host/waiter will continue to serve another few centilitres at a time until the guest indicates he has had enough. The most common practice is to drink only one cup since serving coffee serves as a ceremonial act of kindness and hospitality. Sometimes people also drink larger volumes during conversations.[33]

Habits

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The cups are normally only filled partway, and the habit is to drink three cups.[34] Arabic coffee has a prominent place in traditional Arab holidays and special events such as Ramadan and Eid.

Fortune-telling

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Arabic coffee reading (Arabic: قراءة الفنجان, romanized: qirāʾat al-finjān), is similar to tea-leaf reading; the client is asked to consume strong fresh Arabic coffee leaving approximately a teaspoon of liquid in the cup. The cup is then inverted onto a saucer to allowing the residual liquid to drain away and dry up. The reader will then interpret the patterns formed by the thick residue on the inside of the cup looking for symbols and letters.[35][36]

Funeral

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Arabic funerals gather families and extended relatives, who drink bitter and unsweetened coffee and recount the life and characteristics of the deceased. The men and women gather separately, and it has become very fashionable to employ very presentable women whose only job is to serve coffee all day to the women. Male waiters serve the men. Arab Muslims and Christians share this tradition.[37]

Nutrition facts

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Arabic coffee, traditionally brewed from lightly roasted Arabica beans and often infused with spices such as cardamom or saffron, is typically served in small quantities (approximately 60–90 ml per serving). In its plain form, Arabic coffee is considered a low-calorie beverage with minimal macronutrient content. A small cup of Arabic coffee has almost no calories or fat.[38][39]

The exact nutritional values may vary depending on the roast level, brewing method, and whether additives such as sugar or milk are included.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "How Can You Use Cardamom Spice In Your Cooking?". The Spruce Eats. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  2. ^ "Ingredients Arabic Coffee". Archived from the original on 2018-12-28. Retrieved 2017-10-06.
  3. ^ Mokha, Al. "Yemen Coffee History". Al Mokha. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  4. ^ "Coffee and qahwa: How a drink for Arab mystics went global". BBC News. 2013-04-18. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  5. ^ a b Weinberg, Bennett Alan; Bealer, Bonnie K. (2001). The world of caffeine. Routledge. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-415-92723-9. coffee goat ethiopia Kaldi.
  6. ^ "Arabic coffee, a symbol of generosity - intangible heritage - Culture Sector - UNESCO". www.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 2017-05-10. Retrieved 2017-04-04.
  7. ^ "Yemen Wakes up to Coffee as Farmers Cut Qat". www.goethe.de. Retrieved 2024-09-28.
  8. ^ "coffee". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  9. ^ "coffee". Oxford English Dictionary (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. 1933.
  10. ^ a b Kaye, Alan (1986). "The Etymology of Coffee: The Dark Brew". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 106 (3): 557–558. doi:10.2307/602112. JSTOR 602112.
  11. ^ قهي. الباحث العربي (in Arabic). Archived from the original on November 15, 2019. Retrieved September 25, 2011.(see also qahiya: Hans Wehr's Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic Archived 2023-03-27 at the Wayback Machine. page 930.)
  12. ^ Al-Jaziri's manuscript work is of considerable interest with regards to the history of coffee in Europe as well. A copy reached the French royal library, where it was translated in part by Antoine Galland as De l'origine et du progrès du café.
  13. ^ "resource for Arabic books". www.alwaraq.net. Archived from the original on 2019-08-06. Retrieved 2023-04-03.
  14. ^ Schneider, Irene (2001). "Ebussuud". In Michael Stolleis (ed.). Juristen: ein biographisches Lexikon; von der Antike bis zum 20. Jahrhundert (in German) (2nd ed.). München: Beck. p. 193. ISBN 3-406-45957-9.
  15. ^ J. E. Hanauer (1907). "About Coffee". Folk-lore of the Holy Land. pp. 291 f. [All] the coffee-houses [were] closed, and their keepers pelted with the sherds of their pots and cups. This was in 1524, but by an order of Selìm I., the decrees of the learned were reversed, the disturbances in Egypt quieted, the drinking of coffee declared perfectly orthodox References
  16. ^ a b "What makes Arabic coffee unique?". Your Middle East. Archived from the original on 2017-04-15. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
  17. ^ Cite error: The named reference SAKI was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  18. ^ "UNESCO - Arabic coffee, a symbol of generosity". ich.unesco.org. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  19. ^ "Gulf Arabic coffee - qahwa arabiyyah". www.dlc.fi. Archived from the original on 2017-05-06. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
  20. ^ Al Asfour, Saud. "القهوة الكويتية.. أصالة وعراقة". Alqabas. Archived from the original on 2020-10-08. Retrieved 2023-04-03.
  21. ^ Al Asfour, Saud. "القهوجي.. "صَبَّاب القهوة" في الكويت قديماً". Alqabas. Archived from the original on 2020-10-09. Retrieved 2023-04-03.
  22. ^ "IMEU: The rich flavors of Palestine". imeu.net. 2008-12-01. Archived from the original on 2009-04-16.
  23. ^ a b "Food Heritage Foundation – Lebanese coffee". food-heritage.org. 27 October 2014. Archived from the original on 2018-08-21. Retrieved 2018-08-20.
  24. ^ "Lebanese Coffee, Coffee passion". maatouk.com. Archived from the original on 2018-08-20. Retrieved 2018-08-20.
  25. ^ "הנפח האחרון במע'אר שמייצר את קומקום הקפה הערבי המסורתי". Haaretz הארץ (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on 2024-01-23. Retrieved 2025-09-18.
  26. ^ Shihab, Aziz (1993). A Taste of Palestine: Menus and Memories. San Antonio, Tex. : Dallas: Corona Pub. Co.; Distributed by Taylor Pub. Co. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-931722-93-6.
  27. ^ "Jordanian Coffee Traditions". Ammanjo. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
  28. ^ Civitello, Linda (2007). Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley. ISBN 9780471741725.
  29. ^ a b Brustad, Kristen; Al-Batal, Mahmoud; Al-Tonsi, Abbas (2010). Alif Baa: Introduction to Arabic Letters and Sounds. Georgetown University Press. p. 132. ISBN 9781589016330.
  30. ^ "The History Of Coffee". ncausa.org. National Coffee Association of the U.S.A. October 24, 2016. Archived from the original on August 22, 2019. Retrieved April 3, 2023.
  31. ^ S., Hattox, Ralph (2014-01-01). Coffee and Coffeehouses The Origins of a Social Beverage in the Medieval Near East. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0295805498. OCLC 934667227.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ "Gahwa". Abu Dhabi Culture. 2018-01-29. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
  33. ^ "Arabic Coffee Service | GWNunn.com". gwnunn.com. Archived from the original on 2017-04-15. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
  34. ^ "Arabic Coffee - A Welcoming Ritual". Cabin Crew Excellence. Archived from the original on 2015-08-17. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
  35. ^ "Jane - Fortune Teller | Middlesex| South East| UK - Contraband Events". Contraband Events. Archived from the original on 2018-08-20. Retrieved 2023-04-03.
  36. ^ Student, The Arabic. "Arab Cup Reading تبصير بالفنجان". Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  37. ^ IMEU. "Palestinian Social Customs and Traditions | IMEU". imeu.org. Archived from the original on 2017-04-15. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
  38. ^ Cherney, Kristeen. "Arabic Coffee Nutrition Information". LIVESTRONG.COM. Archived from the original on 2017-04-15. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
  39. ^ Tulsani, Manoj (2013-05-29). "5 Interesting Facts About Arabic Coffee". Travel Tips and Experience - Rayna Tours and Travels. Archived from the original on 2017-05-02. Retrieved 2017-04-14.

Further reading

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