Aden Emergency

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Aden Emergency
Part of the Cold War, the Arab Cold War, and the decolonization of Asia

British soldiers crack down on protests by using tear gas
Date14 October 1963 – 30 November 1967
(4 years, 1 month, 2 weeks and 2 days)
Location
Western and Eastern Protectorates, Aden Protectorate
Result

Yemeni NLF victory

Belligerents

Yemen National Liberation Front (NLF)

Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen (FLOSY)
Supported by:
United Arab Republic

United Kingdom

Federation of South Arabia:
South Arabian League
Supported by:
Saudi Arabia
Commanders and leaders

Yemen Qahtan al-Shaabi
Yemen Jarallah Omar
Yemen Salim Rubaya Ali
Yemen Rajih Labouza †[1]
Yemen Ali Antar[1]

Abdullah al-Asnag		 United Kingdom Harold Wilson
United Kingdom Michael Le Fanu
United Kingdom Michael Beetham
United Kingdom Colin Campbell Mitchell
Units involved
unknown
 See British Order of Battle at the Aden Emergency
Strength
Yemen 26,000 fighters[2] United Kingdom 30,000 at peak[3]
(3,500 in November 1967)[4]
15,000 federal troops[5]
Casualties and losses
Yemen 382 killed
Yemen 1,714 wounded[5]		 British Army:
United Kingdom 90–92 killed
United Kingdom 510 wounded[6][5]
Federal Regular Army:
17 killed
58 wounded
Total: 2,096 casualties[7]

The Aden Emergency, also known as the 14 October Revolution[a] or the Aden Insurgency, was an armed rebellion led mainly by the National Liberation Front (NLF) and the Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen (FLOSY) against the British Protectorate and Federation of South Arabia. It began on 14 October 1963 when tribes from Radfan attacked British troops and ended with the proclamation of independence of the People's Republic of Southern Yemen.

The British had declared a state of emergency following the throwing of a grenade at a gathering of British officials on 10 December 1963 at RAF Khormaksar. A state of emergency was then declared in the British Crown colony of Aden and its hinterland, the Aden Protectorate. The emergency escalated in 1967, hastening the end of British rule in the territory, which had begun in 1839.

Background

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British arrival in Yemen

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See also: Aden Expedition

The first political intercourse between Yemen and the British took place in 1799 during the French invasion of Egypt and Syria, when a naval force was sent from Britain, with a detachment of troops from India, to occupy the island of Perim and prevent all communication of the French in Egypt with the Indian Ocean, by way of the Red Sea. Due to the lack of water supply, the barren and inhospitable island of Perim was found unsuitable for troops,[8][9] and the Sultan of Lahej, Ahmed bin Abdul Karim, received the detachment for some time at Aden. He proposed to enter into an alliance and to grant Aden as a permanent station, but the offer was declined. A treaty was, however, concluded with the Sultan in 1802 by Admiral Home Popham, who was instructed to enter into political and commercial alliances with the Chiefs of the Arabian coast of the Red Sea.[10]

By the early 1800s, the British were looking for a coaling station where they could fuel their steamships through their journey from the Suez Canal to the British Raj.[11] The British tried to negotiate with the Mahra Sultanate to buy the island of Socotra, located in the Arabian Sea, but the Sultan of Mahra refused, telling the British naval officer tasked with the mission that the island was "the gift of the Almighty to the Mahris".[11][12] In 1835, a year after the British had given up on Socotra, they had attempted to purchase the port city of Aden and its inlet from the Sultan of Lahej, Muhsin Bin Fadl, but they failed. In 1837, the Duria Dawla, an Indian ship flying the Union Jack, crashed near the east coast of Aden and was looted by local tribesmen. A year after the incident, in 1838, British officials arrived in Lahej and demanded 12,000 Maria Theresa thalers (MTT) as compensation for the losses. The sultan, unable to pay that sum of money, was forced to cede Aden to the British for a sum of 8,700 MTT a year.[13] On 19 January 1839, the British East India Company landed Royal Marines at Aden to retain full control of Aden and stop attacks by pirates against British shipping to India.

Following the landing in Aden, the British established informal treaties of protection with nine sheikhdoms and sultanates in the surrounding region.[14] This was more a precautionary measure to prevent the Imams of Yemen from storming Aden, which was something the sheikhdoms did not want to happen.[15] These agreements allowed the British to maintain control, using the existing tribal structures to assert their influence. Since the region was plagued by frequent tribal conflicts and no single ruler held enough sway to unify the tribes, there was little threat to British dominance. This fragmentation not only prevented any strong opposition but also delayed the formation of a broader national identity. The British, in turn, benefited from a system that was both efficient and inexpensive, spending only around $5,435 a year in subsidies to secure the loyalty of twenty-five sultans. By avoiding direct administration and relying on a policy of strategic dependence, the British were able to expand their influence. By 1914, they had treaties with nearly every sultan in the region.[16]

Partitioning Yemen

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Map showing the Violet Line

In 1914, following the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913, the British and the Ottomans divided Arabia into two parts: the northwest under Ottoman control and influence, and the southeast under British control and influence.[17] Although a further agreement, which came to be later known as the Violet Line,[17] was negotiated, the Ottomans planned an invasion of the Aden Protectorate in cooperation with local tribes. They had gathered significant strength at Cheikh Saïd. On 5 November 1914, during the First World War, the British declared war on the Ottomans, who responded with their declaration a few days later, on 11 November. Although the Ottomans managed to capture the Sultanate of Lahej and reach the city of Aden, they were later expelled by the British. Around the same time, the British-sponsored Arab Revolt in the Hejaz broke out, diverting Ottoman attention from Aden and effectively ending their campaign. The Armistice of Mudros, signed in 1918, officially concluded the war and forced the Ottomans out of Arabia, leading to the establishment of the Kingdom of Yemen.

During the period between the two World Wars, Aden grew significantly in strategic value to the British. Positioned near the entrance to the Persian Gulf, it played a crucial role in safeguarding maritime routes through the Suez Canal and was close to the newly discovered oil reserves in the Arabian Peninsula. Recognizing its increased importance, Britain formally designated Aden as a Crown Colony in 1937 and implemented a full colonial administrative system. This move further diminished the authority of local rulers, as Britain took full control over governance and policy decisions. The centralization of power in British hands sparked several small-scale uprisings. In response, Yemeni leaders, often supported by British forces, resorted to harsh and repressive tactics to suppress dissent and maintain order among the tribes.[18]

Beginning of the end of British rule in Yemen

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In 1952, Arab nationalism began to sweep across the Arab world, starting in Egypt, accompanied by anti-colonial sentiments. Nationalist pressures prompted the rulers of the Aden Protectorate states to renew efforts at forming a federation. On 11 February 1959, six of these states signed an accord to form the Federation of the Emirates of South Arabia. Over the next three years, nine additional sheikhdoms joined, and on 18 January 1963, Aden Colony was merged with the federation, creating the new Federation of South Arabia (FSA), although all but four sheikhdoms out of twenty-one had joined the union.[14] Meanwhile, the Qu'aiti and Kathiri sultanates of Hadhramaut, along with Mahra, and Upper Yafa refused to join either of the federations and became the Protectorate of South Arabia, marking the end of the Aden Protectorate. The FSA did not succeed for several reasons, the first of which was the British insistence that the State of Aden would be part of the entity, which was rejected by the commercial elite of Aden, most of whom were Indians, Persians, and Jews, because they feared that Aden's wealth would be taken away by the neighboring sheikhdoms.[14][19][20] On the other hand, the leaders of the sheikhdoms had little experience with federal rule and had no desire for cooperation.[15] In addition to all that, there were differences between the sheikhdoms over who should head the federation's new government.[15]

In 26 September 1962, a successful coup carried out against the Kingdom of Yemen by the Free Officers Movement in Yemen [ar], supported by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser—who had led the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 against British rule—resulted in the establishment of the Yemen Arab Republic.[21][22] This coup inspired organizations, such as the local branch of the Movement of Arab Nationalists and the Aden Trade Union Congress, to form the National Liberation Front (NLF)[b] and the Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen (FLOSY),[c] respectively.[23][24] Supporters of the NLF were from the countryside of Radfan, Yafa', and Ad-Dali, while the supporters of the FLOSY were mainly the citizens of Aden. This is because tribal affiliations played a major role in attracting supporters.[25]

Involved organizations

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See also: Aden Trade Union Congress

There were a number of different nationalist groups fighting the British. Often, they fought each other. The most well known groups are:[26]

  1. The National Liberation Front (NLF)
  2. The Front for the Liberation of South Yemen (FLOSY)
  3. The South Arabian League (SAL)
  4. The Organization for the Liberation of the Occupied South (OLOS)
  5. The People's Liberation Party (PLP)

Among the main players, the SAL was backed by Saudi Arabia, the FLOSY by Egypt and the Aden Trade Unions. All the major groups were based in Yemen, and they regularly combined or broke up with other groups. For instance, SAL joined with PSP to become OLOS in 1965, and then broke away in 1966. The NLF joined with OLOS in January 1966 to form FLOSY, then broke away in December 1966. Such movement was quite common throughout the war.[10]

History

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Radfan Campaign

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Main article: Radfan Campaign

Grenade attack and British declaration of state emergency

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The British declared a state emergency on 10 December 1963, following an NLF grenade attack on the British High Commissioner of Aden, Sir Kennedy Trevaskis, which took place as he arrived at Khormaksar Airport to catch a London-bound flight. The grenade killed the High Commissioner's adviser and a woman and injured fifty other people.[27]

The NLF and FLOSY began a campaign against British forces in Aden, relying largely on grenade attacks. One such attack was carried out against RAF Khormaksar during a children's party, killing a girl and wounding four children.

The guerrilla attacks largely focused on killing off-duty British officers and policemen. Much of the violence was carried out in Crater, the old Arab quarter of Aden. British forces attempted to intercept weapons being smuggled into Crater by the NLF and FLOSY on the Dhala road, but their efforts met with little success. Despite taking a toll on British forces, the death toll among rebels was far higher, largely due to inter-factional fighting among different rebel groups.

Aden in 1965
NLF graffiti in Mansoura, 1966: "No freedom without blood"

By 1965, the RAF station RAF Khormaksar was operating nine squadrons, including transport units with helicopters and several Hawker Hunter fighter-bomber aircraft. The army called in these for attacks on rebel positions in which they would use 60-pound high explosive rockets and their 30 mm ADEN cannon.

Aden street riots

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Main article: Aden Street riots
Street riots in Aden, 1967
Aden in 1967

On 19–20 January 1967, the NLF provoked street riots in Aden. After the Aden police lost control, British High Commissioner Sir Richard Turnbull deployed British troops to crush the riots. As soon as the NLF riots were crushed, pro-FLOSY rioters took to the streets. Fighting between British forces and pro-guerrilla rioters lasted into February. British forces opened fire 40 times, and during that period there were 60 grenade and shooting attacks against British forces, including the destruction of an Aden Airways Douglas DC-3, which was bombed in mid-air, killing all the people on board.

At one point toward the end of the rebellion in early 1967 the NLF killed at least 35 members of FLOSY in 32 days. The FLOSY guerrillas first asked the British for protection, and then 80 actually flew to the UK using the British passports they had as citizens of a British Colony.[10]

Arab police mutiny

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Main article: Arab Police mutiny

The emergency was further exacerbated by the Six-Day War in June 1967. Nasser claimed that the British had helped Israel in the war, and this led to a mutiny by hundreds of soldiers in the South Arabian Federation Army on June 20, which also spread to the Aden Armed Police. The mutineers killed 22 British soldiers and shot down a helicopter (The pilot had to abandon take off from a ledge near Crater, Aden after being hit in the knee by a bullet. The Sioux crashed and burnt out but all three occupants escaped), and as a result, Crater was occupied by rebel forces.

Concerns were heightened regarding the ability to give sufficient security to British families in the midst of the increased violence, resulting in evacuation plans for families being sped up considerably.

Battle of Crater

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Main article: Battle of Crater

Following the mutiny, all British forces were withdrawn from Crater, while Royal Marines of 45 Commando took up sniping positions on the high ground and killed 10 armed Arab fighters. However, Crater remained occupied by an estimated 400 Arab fighters. NLF and FLOSY fighters then took to the streets and engaged in gun battles, while arson, looting, and murder was also common. British forces blocked off the two main entrances to Crater. They came under sniper fire from an Ottoman fort on Sira island, but the snipers were silenced by a shell from an armoured car. Order was restored in July 1967, when the 1st Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders entered Crater under the command of Lt. Col. Colin Campbell Mitchell and managed to occupy the entire district overnight with no casualties.

British withdrawal from Yemen

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Main article: Withdrawal from Aden
NLF supporters waving their flags as part of the celebrations and mass marches on 29 and 30 November, 1967
Lowering of the Union Jack in Aden

Nevertheless, repeated guerrilla attacks by the NLF soon resumed against British forces, causing the British to leave Aden by the end of November 1967, earlier than had been planned by British Prime Minister Harold Wilson and without an agreement on the succeeding governance, effectively abandoning the South Arabian government.

On 30 November 1967 the Federation of South Arabia ceased to exist when the People's Republic of Southern Yemen was proclaimed. In 1967 Israel defeated Egypt in the Six-Day War thus obliging Egypt to evacuate its troops from Yemen. FLOSY, now without any military support from its Egyptian ally, continued fighting the NLF. However FLOSY's fate was sealed when the NLF managed to persuade the Yemen's Federal army to join the fight against FLOSY. On 7 November 1967 FLOSY tried to attack a federal army base but the army defeated FLOSY with the NLF's help, inflicting heavy losses on FLOSY. After the defeat FLOSY´s fighting force disbanded although some cadres and leaders remained outside the country.[28] Most of the opposing leaders reconciled by 1968, in the aftermath of a final royalist siege of San'a'.

Aftermath

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British military casualties in the period 1963 to 1967 were 90 to 92 killed[29] and 510 wounded. British civilian deaths were 17. Local government forces lost 17 killed and 58 wounded. Casualties among the rebel forces stood at 382 killed and 1,714 wounded.[6][5]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Arabic: ثورة 14 أكتوبر, romanized: Thawrat 14 ʾUktūbar, lit. '14th October Revolution'
  2. ^ led by Qahtan al-Shaabi
  3. ^ led by Abdullah al-Asnag

References

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Citations

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  1. ^ a b Brehony 2013, p. 19.
  2. ^ Molyneux, Maxine; Yafai, Aida; Mohsen, Aisha; Ba'abad, Noor (1979). "Women and Revolution in the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen". Feminist Review (1): 5–20. doi:10.2307/1394747. JSTOR 1394747.
  3. ^ "Wars and Global Conflict: Confrontations and Hostilities". Modern-Day Commando. Archived from the original on 26 June 2014.
  4. ^ "Aden Emergency". nam.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 28 July 2013.
  5. ^ a b c d "Aden Emergency PSYOP 1963–1967". PsyWar.Org. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
  6. ^ a b "Roll of Honour - Databases - Search Aden Emergency British Casualties". www.roll-of-honour.com.
  7. ^ Peterson, J. E. (August 2009). "British Counter-Insurgency Campaigns and Iraq" (PDF). Arabian Peninsula Background Notes: 12.
  8. ^ "Perim Island Colony". www.britishempire.co.uk. Retrieved 13 April 2025. The East India Company had actually briefly occupied the island as far back as 1799 once Napoleon had arrived in Egypt. Lieutenant-Colonel John Murray landed with 300 soldiers to see if it would make a suitable base to block any further French advance towards India. John Murray soon concluded that any British cannons placed on the island would not have had the range to block a French fleet sailing past. The island was also at a disadvantage as a base due to the lack of any water supply. Consequently, within 6 months, the EIC withdrew its forces from the island and abandoned its plans to build a fort there. For the next six decades, the island returned to its status as an obstacle to be avoided by shipping.
  9. ^ Ingram, Edward (1973). "A Preview of the Great Game in Asia: I: The British Occupation of Perim and Aden in 1799". Middle Eastern Studies. 9 (1): 3–18. doi:10.1080/00263207308700224. ISSN 0026-3206. JSTOR 4282450.
  10. ^ a b c Aitchison, G (1931). A Collection of Treaties, Engagements And Sanads Relating To India And Neighbouring Countries. Vol. xi. Government of India. pp. 2–7. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  11. ^ a b Clark 2010, p. 29.
  12. ^ Bijl 2014, p. 4.
  13. ^ Clark 2010, p. 31.
  14. ^ a b c "Yemen". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 22 September 2013
  15. ^ a b c Day 2012, p. 39.
  16. ^ Russell 1988, p. 8.
  17. ^ a b Schofield 1999.
  18. ^ Russell 1988, p. 8-9.
  19. ^ Day 2012, p. 38.
  20. ^ Stookey 1982, p. 55.
  21. ^ Clark 2010, pp. 62–65.
  22. ^ Sandler, Stanley. Ground Warfare: The International Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 (2002): p. 977. "Egypt immediately began sending military supplies and troops to assist the Republicans... On the royalist side Jordan and Saudi Arabia were furnishing military aid, and Britain lent diplomatic support. In addition to Egyptian aid, the Soviet Union supplied 24 MiG-19s to the republicans."
  23. ^ Barany 2016, p. 7.
  24. ^ Clark 2010, p. 76.
  25. ^ Mumford 2014, p. 87.
  26. ^ Friedman, Herbert A. (30 January 2007). "Psyop of the Aden Emergency 1963-1967". Psywar.org. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  27. ^ "Grenade Thrown Into Aden Airport; 1 Dead". The Canberra Times. 11 December 1963. p. 1. Retrieved 6 November 2015 – via National Library of Australia.
  28. ^ Kostiner, Joseph (1984). The struggle for South Yemen. London: Croom Helm. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-7099-1504-1.
  29. ^ "Roll of Honour" (PDF). Aden Veterans Association. March 2022.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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